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«© Underwood & Underwood 


BOATING 


A popular type of sailboat for amateur racing 











THE BOOK OF 

ft 

SPORTS AND GAMES 


EDITED BY 

WALTER CAMP 

AUTHOR OF “THE DAILY DOZEN" 


WITH TWELVE DIAGRAMS AND SIXTEEN 
FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS 


> ) > 

l 


NEW YORK 

THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 






70 / 



1<W$ 


Copyright, 1903 
By P. F. Collier & Son 
(Library For Young People) 


Copyright, 1923 

By Thomas Y. Crowell Company 
(Revised and Enlarged Edition) 



© 


C1A753603 


PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA 


OCT 30 ?3 


7.\o \ 



INTRODUCTION 

In looking over the general subject of sports and 
games, I have been struck with the fact that very 
little in a comprehensive way has been offered to 
their followers. Single books there are on the sub¬ 
ject of golf, tennis, football, and the various other 
games which have a large following of devotees, but 
very little is provided in the way of a compendium 
of all games. 

In providing the course of daily exercises for the 
phonograph, known as the “Daily Dozen,” I have 
had in mind the needs of the indoor man. Many 
of our months are shut-in months, and many of our 
office-workers have all too few hours of golden sun¬ 
shine and fresh air. To all such persons, the daily 
regimen of exercise is absolutely essential to con¬ 
tinued health. 

However, for every month in the year there are 
certain outdoor sports, if only one will seek to find 
them. There are skating and hockey in mid-winter. 
Basketball, while an indoor sport, provides all the 
dash and freedom of many outdoor pastimes. With 

the coming of spring, the whole vista of such sports 

• • • 
in 


Introduction 


opens up to the enthusiast. The early golfer gets 
on his knickerbockers. Canoeing and rowing attract 
other adherents. Then come baseball, tennis, and all 
the rest, lasting well on to the time when snow falls 
again. 

This book has been provided to give a general 
brief view of all the popular outdoor pastimes, to¬ 
gether with certain indoor games which provide 
physical exercise during the shut in months. It is, 
of course, not the last word on the subject, as many 
of these games require much more extended playing 
rules than can be allotted in these pages. It does, 
however, endeavor to give the salient facts which the 
player will need to know in taking up any sport for 
the first time. 

We cannot leave the subject without some com¬ 
ment upon the ethics of sport. 

In the first place, play fair. Nothing counts more 
than that. Not only does the sport go out of the 
contest and the sun go behind a cloud, but the very 
chance of winning grows less when any other means 
are considered. The victory is only worth winning 
when it leaves no scar behind. Make the rules strict 
and then live up to them. Don’t study to find where 
they can be evaded, but rather to insure their en¬ 
forcement, and then you will have nothing to regret. 

In your games try to give everyone a chance. 
Don’t make them all games of strength. Don’t make 
them all games of skill. Don’t get so much enam- 


IV 


Introduction 


ored of any one that you cannot see the fun in an¬ 
other. But when you go in for a sport, follow it up 
and make the most of yourself. Don’t be deluded, 
moreover, by the people who tell you to “play only 
for sport, never mind who wins.” That spirit might 
come with the millennium, but I doubt it. A good, 
live American boy or girl has a right to win and to 
play to win, and if he is on a team or crew or nine, 
or if she be on a basketball team or golf team, or 
anything else, where upon individual effort depends 
somewhat the success of others, then that boy or girl 
must play to win. It is not a bad thing to feel a 
pleasure in success and a depression in defeat, so long 
as neither of these feelings lasts too long. They ought 
to come, and they will. They are part of the training 
and discipline, of the education and development, 
and without them life at school or college would lose 
a good deal of its savor. Of course, there are better 
things than winning, and there are a good many 
worse things than losing, but you don’t need a 
preacher to tell you that, and it is generally only 
the lazy, careless, and indifferent who go upon the 
principle of never mind who wins or loses. 

To those for whom there is an opportunity, I can 
only say: Take as much pleasure out of doors as 
possible. There is nothing that can compare with 
fresh air. No amount of gymnasium or indoor 
amusement can make up for the lack of the real 
benefit which comes from pleasurable sport out of 


Introduction 


doors. Don’t stay indoors because it is cloudy or 
windy, or because the day seems disagreeable. We 
should naturally be out of doors, and it is only the 
exceptional case where, no matter what the weather 
is, one is not the better for being out every day. 

Just one word more. Sports and games out of 
doors ought to teach you unselfishness. The narrow, 
cramped, confining four walls of a house ought to 
be forgotten, and with them anything small and 
contemptible. Growth of the body comes from out- 
of-door exercises and the fresh air and sunshine, and 
with it ought to come growth of the mind, not in 
the sense of book knowledge which the school and 
evening reading can furnish, but in the sense of 
greater breadth of view and wider horizon. This 
may seem like preaching, but everybody knows how 
much harder it is to be cross and mean and stingy 
when out of doors than when cooped up in the house. 
But just as you grow strong in body by these out-of- 
door sports through constant exertion, so the mind 
and heart, even though well disposed, should have 
the same amount of exertion along the right lines to 
make them broad and true. So I say, be generous 
to a fault, forget self and selfishness, and grow. 

Walter Camp. 

New Haven, Conn. 

September, 1923. 


vi 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Baseball. 3 

Basketball.27 

Boating.41 

Rowing.41 

Canoeing.61 

Sail Boats.83 

Motor Boats.131 

Bowling.147 

Camping.165 

Cricket.193 

Croquet.211 

Football.223 

Golf.239 

Ice Hockey.265 

Field Hockey.285 

Lawn Bowls.293 

Polo. 309 

Quoits.319 

Skating. 335 

Soccer. 355 

Swimming.367 

Tennis. 3^7 

• • 
vn 




























ILLUSTRATIONS 


Boating. Frontispiece 

Popular type of sailboat for amateur racing. 

PAGE 

Baseball.16 

A practice game between the New York “Giants” and the 
Chicago “White Sox” at San Antonio. 

Basketball.30 

A close try for a goal. Basketball has the advantage of 
being adapted to either indoors or outdoors. 

Rowing.. . 46 

Coaching two college crews on a practice spin. 

Canoeing.68 

Contestants in a race show how to fall out of a canoe 
and get back in again. 

Motor Boating. 134 

This speedy boat provides a thrill for the man on the 
aquaplane behind. 

Camping.176 

A typical camp scene in the White Mountains. 

Cricket.200 

A game at Bermuda, between a local team and one from 
Philadelphia. 

Football.230 

Tense moment in a big game between Yale and Harvard. 

Golf.248 

In a “Father and Son” tournament, at Sleepy Hollow, N, Y, 


IX 










Illustrations 


Ice Hockey. 

Match game played between Oxford and Cambridge 
teams, at St. Moritz, Switzerland. 

Field Hockey. 

Spirited match between two school girl teams, at Phila¬ 
delphia. 


Polo. 

A match game between West Point and Virginia Military 
Institute. A grapple in midfield. 


Skating. 

A professional racer warming up at Lake Placid. 

Diving. 

Three types of fancy high diving, at a summer camp at 
Peterboro, N. H. 


Tennis. M . 

Scene at a national lawn tennis championship tournament, 
at Forest Hills, L. 1 . 


PAGE 

270 

288 

314 

340 

380 

39S 


X 

















BASEBALL 


t 



2 
















BASEBALL 


BASEBALL is recognized in this country and 
abroad as the great American national game. 
It holds a peculiar place in the affections of the 
public. Its nearest rival in popularity is football, 
but the latter is considered more of a school game, 
while baseball is a game of the masses. Whether 
played on a sand lot between teams composed of 
school boys, or professionally by high-salaried men 
before audiences running into the tens of thousands, 
the enthusiasm it can inspire is equalled by no other 
sport, unless it be the great intercollegiate contests 
of football. 

Playing ball of one sort or another dates back to 
antiquity. There was a species of ball game popular 
in Egypt forty centuries ago. The Chinese also had 
their game of ball. Nowadays in England the near¬ 
est approach to our baseball is cricket; but as we 
play it today it is distinctly an American invention. 
Baseball in something like its present form was first 
played in 1839, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Previous to 
this a game generally known as “One Old Cat” was 
played by schoolboys in this country. This was 
played by three boys, each batting in turn, and scor¬ 
ing runs by going to a single base and back, without 

3 


Sports and Games 

being hit or touched by the ball. Then came “Two 
Old Cat,” “Three Old Cat,” and “Four Old Cat,” ex¬ 
tensions of the game using four, six, and eight play¬ 
ers. Choosing sides came naturally next. A species 
of “Town Ball” was played in Philadelphia, in 1833. 

In 1843, organized baseball clubs began to appear, 
with scheduled match games. One of the first of 
these was the Washington Baseball Club of New 
York. Two years later the first code of rules was 
drawn up by the Knickerbocker Baseball Club of 
the same city, and used in its matches with seven 
other clubs of New York and Brooklyn. 

In 1858 the National Association was formed, 
which endeavored to take up the game professionally. 
The first strictly professional baseball club was the 
Cincinnati Red Stockings, which toured the country 
in 1869 and defeated all comers. By this time the 
game had evoluted into baseball very much as it is 
played today. 

The National Association of Professional Base¬ 
ball Players was organized in 1871 with a ten club 
circuit. The National League followed in 1876, the 
American Association in 1882, and the American 
League in 1902. 

There are now two “major leagues,” the National 
and the American, which play “World Series” games 
to decide the championship. In addition to these, 
numerous “minor leagues” flourish, such as the 
American Association, the International League, the 

4 


Baseball 


Western League, the Pacific League, the Southern 
League, and various State leagues. 

The above resume deals with the professional as¬ 
pect of the sport. Amateur baseball, in its organized 
phase, is chiefly played by school and college clubs, 
and athletic associations. In 1879, a college circuit 
was organized which included Harvard, Princeton, 
Amherst, Brown, and Dartmouth; Yale coming in 
the next year. In 1887, an Eastern College League 
was established. Many colleges, however, arrange 
their schedules from year to year, and play indepen¬ 
dently of any league. 

THE BASEBALL DIAMOND 

Baseball may be played on any level field, but the 
sides should be at least one hundred yards square. 
More is advisable if it can be obtained. In profes- 
sional games the grounds are always enclosed. Upon 
this space is marked out a diamond (see diagram) 
with the sides measuring each ninety feet, and placed 
so that one corner is distant more than thirty yards 
or so from the end of the field. At this corner of 
the diamond is placed a white plate a foot square 
sunk level with the ground, and designated the 
“home plate.” Canvas bags are placed at each of the 
other three corners, called bases, these bags being 
some fifteen inches square and called, beginning at 
the right as one looks into the field from the home 
plate, first, second and third bases, respectively. The 

5 


Sports and Games 

lines from the home base to the first base and from 
the home base to third base are prolonged out into 
the field and are called “foul lines.” 

In laying out a baseball field proceed as follows: 

With a steel tape-measure lay out the base lines 
and place the home plate and pitcher’s box as shown 
in the diagram. If it is possible to do so, have the 
home plate due north and the pitcher’s plate due 
south. 

Remove the sod from the base lines between the 
home plate and first and third bases, also from first 
base to second base and from second base to third 
base. The sod may be removed from around the 
pitcher’s plate. Fill in the base lines and the ground 
around the pitcher’s plate if the sod is removed. 

Mark lines of batsman’s box, on each side of home 
plate, with whitewash, chalk or similar substance. 
Also foul lines, from home plate to first base and 
from home plate to third base, continuing out into 
the field beyond first and third bases. 

Distance from home plate to first base, 90 feet; 
from first base to second base, 90 feet; from second 
base to third, 90 feet; and from third base to home 
plate, 90 feet. Total distance around the bases, 360 
feet. 

Distance from point of home plate to pitcher’s 
slab, 60 feet 6 inches. Distance is measured from 
point of home plate, where the base lines intersect, 
and not from the front part of the plate. 

6 


Baseball 


Distance across diamond, from home plate to sec¬ 
ond base, 127 feet 3% inches; from first base, across 
diamond, to third base, the same. 

Size of batsman’s box, 6 feet by 4 feet. 

Size of pitcher’s slab, 24 inches by 6 inches. 

Size of base bags, 15 inches square. 

Home plate, 1 foot square, with the corners filled 
in on the portion facing the pitcher, where it will 
measure 17 inches across. 

To obviate the necessity for ground rules, where 
space is limited, the official rules specify that the 
shortest distance from home plate to grand stand is 
90 feet. 

A simple method of laying out a ball field with a 
piece of cord is as follows: 

First—Get a piece of rope or cord, with no stretch 
in it. Second—Measure off the following distances 
and make a knot at each distance: 60 feet 6 inches 
—90 feet—127 feet inches—180 feet. Third— 

Decide upon the location of home plate (north and 
south is preferable, to avoid the sun in the fielders’ 
eyes) ; fasten the rope end to a peg at home and walk 
out straight to full length of rope; 60 feet 6 inches 
will be the pitcher’s slab; 127 feet 3inches will be 
second base; put in spikes to mark same. Next fasten 
the knot at 180 feet at second; grasp knot at 90 feet 
and walk out to right of home until the rope is tight 
at all points; this will be first base; go to the left in 
same manner and you will have third base. This 

7 




Sports and Games 

can be done in less than ten minutes. This method 
is good for use at picnics, outings or similar events. 

OFFICIAL DIMENSIONS OF DIAMONDS FOR BOYS UNDER 

SIXTEEN YEARS OF AGE. 

Distance between bases, 82 feet; home plate to sec¬ 
ond base, 115 feet 11*4 inches; same distance across 
diamond from first base to third base; home plate 
to pitcher’s slab, 50 feet. 

IMPLEMENTS OF THE GAME 

The ball must weigh not less than five nor more 
than five and one-quarter ounces avoirdupois and 
measure not less than nine nor more than nine and 
one-quarter inches in circumference. 

The bat must be round, not over two and three- 
fourths inches in diameter at the thickest part, nor 
more than forty-two inches in length, and entirely 
out of hardwood, except that for a distance of 18 
inches from the end twine may be wound around; or 
a granulated substance applied to the handle. 

Players are also provided with uniforms, gloves, 
and reinforced shoes, to conform to certain require¬ 
ments. 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

Two teams make up each contest, with nine play¬ 
ers on each side. The fielders are known as the 
pitcher, the catcher, the first baseman, the second 
baseman, the third baseman, the shortstop, the left 

8 


Baseball 


fielder, the center fielder, and the right fielder. None 
of these is required to occupy an exact position on 
the field, except the pitcher, who must stand with his 
foot touching the pitcher’s slab when in the act of 
delivering the ball to the batter, and the catcher, 
who must be within the “catcher’s space” behind the 
batter. 

Each side has nine turns or innings at the bat, and 
by a turn is meant that that side continues batting 
until three men have been put out. In case of a tie 
score at the end of the ninth inning, etxra innings 
may be played. 

The batsman stands at the home plate, until he 
has hit the ball safely when he endeavors to make a 
circuit, or run of the bases. 

Inside the diamond and in front of the home plate 
some sixty feet in a straight line is what is called the 
pitcher’s position, where the pitcher stands when 
delivering the ball to the batsman. The catcher’s 
position, not fixed by law but which he occupies by 
preference, is close behind the batsman. The men 
at the bat take their turn in regular order, and con¬ 
tinue, as stated above, until three of them have been 
put out by the opponents. This is a signal for the 
retirement of the batsmen to the field, and the others 
come in to take their turn at the bat. 

The officials of the game are either one or two 
umpires. In all important games two umpires are 
used—one stationed just behind the catcher, to judge 

9 


Sports and Games 

balls, strikes, and put-outs at the home plate; the other 
out in the field to render decisions at first, second and 
third bases, and to judge all plays in this and the out¬ 
lying territory. 

THE PLAYING POSITIONS 

Batting. As every player must take his regular 
turn at the bat, the first thing one should take up is 
the batting, for there the average nine is far weaker 
in proportion than in any other department of the 
game. This is probably due to the fact that every 
American boy practices fielding from the time he 
can handle a ball, but his practice in batting is very 
limited. Drilling in batting takes time and requires 
close attention. There are several ways to conduct 
it, the most common being to have the substitute 
pitchers pitch to the candidates of the nine, letting 
each man take a turn at batting for a certain length 
of time each day. 

The batsman should assume the proper position 
when at bat. Individuals differ somewhat in this 
respect, and a proper position for one man may not 
be the proper position for another, but there are 
certain faults which are detrimental to good hit¬ 
ting. The most common of these faults is that of 
drawing away from the plate. Sometimes it arises 
from the batsman having been hit with the ball and 
this makes him nervous, and he draws his front foot 
away from the plate as soon as the pitcher starts to 

io 


Baseball 


deliver the ball. Anything in the way of an exag¬ 
gerated position is bad; that is, if a man leans very 
far forward, or previous to the delivery of the pitcher 
holds his bat in some peculiar attitude. 

The best position for the bat is just over the shoul¬ 
der, and a man should make a slight motion prepara¬ 
tory to hitting the ball every time the pitcher de¬ 
livers it. In other words, he should get himself in 
readiness to complete the swing if the ball proves 
good. The hands should not be at the extreme end 
of the bat, but an inch or two up from the end, 
and beyond that it is by no means a bad plan to 
shorten the bat still more until the man is practically 
sure to hit the average pitcher with fair certainty. 
The batsman should practice what is known as “free 
hitting,” namely, hitting any balls that come within 
certain striking distance between his knee and shoul¬ 
der. This prevents his being at the mercy of the 
pitcher who works the corners well, for a man who 
is trained to hit nothing except the ball that comes 
exactly over the middle of the plate, and who bats 
more according to the position of the plate than ac¬ 
cording to the ball delivered, is usually an easy man 
for the expert pitcher to deceive. 

The batsman should also be taught to bunt the 
ball, that is, to block it with the bat, sending it just 
inside the diamond, and the practice of placing such 
hits is an excellent supplementary exercise. During 
part of the batting practice also the batsman should 

ii 


Sports and Games 

be taught to start off just as soon as he has hit the 
ball. It is absolutely essential that batsmen get off 
quickly after the ball is hit, for many times it makes 
a difference between a safe hit and an out. 

The Pitcher. Practicing infielding should be sup¬ 
plemented with instructions the same as practice in 
batting. To begin with the battery, the main point 
nowadays is to have enough catchers and pitchers, 
so that they shall neither of them be overworked, 
especially the pitcher. A pitcher unquestionably is 
not at his best if he has pitched more than two games 
a week, and one really first-class game a week is 
enough if it is advisable to keep him at the top notch. 
Substitutes should be used freely, and the mainstay 
kept where he adds enthusiasm and does not run the 
risk of a lame arm. Especial care should be observed 
in the early part of the spring, for at that time men 
are very apt to get strains in pitching hard games, and 
these strains render them useless for the rest of the 
season. 

Of recent years the game has come to center more 
and more around the pitcher. This does not mean 
to say that the pitcher is the whole game; far from 
it. Every nicely balanced club must look well to 
each position, as a single weak point is quickly de¬ 
tected by the other team and their attack directed 
thereto. For example, if a team plays well on the 
field but does not bat well in the box, it is only at the 
mercy of the opposing pitchers. The pitcher is in 

12 


Baseball 


a sense the captain of the nine, although he may not 
be, and often is not the actual captain, but upon his 
coolness and judgment depends the success or failure 
of the game. 

The veteran pitcher, Jack Coombs, has this to say 
in regard to the qualifications of a successful pitcher: 

“Control is necessary to success in pitching. You 
must have it. The history of the game shows that 
many pitchers with control and plenty of brains were 
successful pitchers, although other men with more 
speed and curves than they had, were failures. They 
were successful because they could put the ball where 
they wanted to put it eleven times out of twelve. 

“Next to control I would say head work. The use 
of the brain in pitching comes second in importance 
in my opinion. 

“After that, a change of pace. By that I mean 
changing from a fast ball to a slow ball without giv¬ 
ing the batter any way of knowing that change. 

“Fourth, and last in the list of esential features of 
pitching, I put speed and curves. 

“Now as to the kinds of ball you should pitch. 
You have probably read of pitchers having from ten 
to fourteen different ways to pitch a ball. I would 
advise young pitchers to use a fast ball and a fast 
curve and a slow ball and a slow curve. That will 
be about all you need. The spit ball and all the other 
freak deliveries are only different kinds of curves. 

“When you are learning to pitch do not try to 

13 


Sports and Games 

master too much at one time. Go along slowly and 
patiently. Pick up little by little and be sure that you 
do everything right before you try to pick up any¬ 
thing else. Many boys who would have made good 
pitchers have spoiled their chances by trying to pitch 
too much, or rather to perfect too many kinds of de¬ 
liveries at the same time. It does not pay in the long 
run. 

“Most boys think that a good arm is all that is 
necessary in pitching. They believe that they must 
pitch solely with their arm. Do not do this. Learn 
to pitch with your body. Bring the muscles of your 
shoulders and the upper part of your body into play. 
Get them into action when you deliver the ball. If 
you do this, you will get more speed. Better than 
that, this system will give you a bigger and better 
curve. Also, if you use your body more than your 
arm it will not tire you. There are many pitchers 
losing games because they do not use their body 
enough. They simply use their arm, and the result 
is that the arm gets tired because it has to do all the 
work, and soon the pitcher finds his speed leaving 
and his curve not breaking right. The other team 
hits him hard and he loses the game unless he is taken 
out. Then sometimes he is not taken out soon enough 
to save the game. 

“When you are pitching, find out the batter’s weak¬ 
ness. You can do this by pitching different kinds of 
balls to him. Practice will teach you to find out 

14 


Baseball 


what he likes to hit and what he does not like to 
strike at, by the way he goes after the ball. Always 
study the batter carefully. 

“After you discover where the batter’s weakness 
lies, do not pitch him constantly the kind of balls he 
is weak on. Change your tactics. Let him think 
that you will pitch to his weakness, but cross him 
with the sort of ball that he does not believe you will 
dare to pitch him. 

“Much of the pitcher’s success lies in outguessing 
the batter. That is, pitching the kind of balls to 
him that he is not looking for. If a batter knows 
that you know his weak point, he may get an idea 
that every ball you pitch to him will be at his weak 
spot. He will be prepared for it. And just when 
he thinks you are about to give him the kind of ball 
he is weak on, give him something else. Always 
try to pitch the kind of ball the batter least expects.” 

Success in pitching is the same as success in any¬ 
thing else. All successes are achieved alike and with 
these two factors—persistency and confidence. Keep 
on trying constantly and keep your nerve. Realize 
that you will be able to accomplish a certain thing, 
set your goal, and keep on trying until you accom¬ 
plish it. 

The Catcher. The catcher does not require the 
same amount of tender attention in training as the 
pitcher, but he too should be well looked after, and 
not used too much. Particularly is it well to see that 

i5 





Sports and Games 

the catcher does not, in practicing his throw to the 
bases, keep at it too long. A few good throws with 
the men will keep him in shape and do better than to 
have him throw until his arm is tired. He should 
practice throwing not only to first, but to second and 
third as well, and particularly with the batsman 
standing in front of him striking at pitched balls. 
The great thing for the catcher to study is getting 
the ball away quickly, and without unnecessary mo¬ 
tion either of the feet, arms, or shoulders. 

The catcher, next to the pitcher, is the determining 
factor in many a hard-fought game. He it is who 
signals to the pitcher what kind of a ball to deliver. 
The signal is usually given by means of the fingers 
or hand upon the mitt, and the pitcher should not 
send over any other ball, without making sure that 
the catcher understands the change in plan. A 
smoothly-working “battery,” as the two are called, 
forms the backbone of a nine. 

The First Baseman. The first baseman can be 
used more freely than any other man on the nine, 
and the aim of his instruction should be to see that 
he covers as much ground as possible in filling his 
position; and, second, that he is able to extend him¬ 
self in all possible directions in meeting the balls 
when thrown to him. That is, he should learn to 
step forward so as to get a ball which is liable to 
come to him on a bad bound, or to step back slightly 
so as to get on a better bound a bad throw which is 

16 



International Photo 

BASEBALL 

A practice game between the New York “Giants” and the Chicago “White Sox,” at San Antonio. 











Baseball 


too far away from him to be trapped. He should 
also try reaching from side to side, keeping his foot 
on the base, and in fact, all possible motions which 
will enable him to save wild throws. He should, 
besides all this, have practice in putting the ball on 
a man when receiving it from the pitcher. This is 
important. 

The Second Baseman. The second baseman’s 
work is in covering ground and in catching balls 
from the catcher and pitcher and putting them on 
the base-runner. He should be encouraged to play 
a pretty deep field game and cover all the ground he 
can on his side of the diamond. He should also prac¬ 
tice quick throws, for by thus playing a deep field 
he may get what would apparently be base hits, and 
by being able to throw them quickly to first, put the 
runner out. 

The Shortstop. The shortstop’s work is similar 
to that of the second baseman, except that his throw 
is longer and must be better timed. The shortstop 
who now plays the most up-to-date game plays very 
deep so that the third baseman can take short balls 
in front of him, and between the two they can close 
up as much as possible the gap, and prevent its com¬ 
ing between third base and short. 

The Third Baseman. The third baseman has one 
of the most difficult positions in the infield, for he 
has opportunities to get hard hits along the third 
base line which require him to get quickly toward 

i7 


Sports and Games 

the base and then recover himself for his throw to 
first. This is one of the most important points of 
a third baseman’s work, and should be practiced a 
great deal. Especial attention should also be paid 
to running in on short hits and getting over in front 
of shortstop on high-bounding balls. 

The Outfield. In the outfield—right, center, and 
left fields—the practice is simpler, and consists in 
catching flies, stopping grounders, and at the same 
time practicing throwing from the out-field to home 
plate and the various bases. The outfielders, like the 
catcher, ought not to do so much throwing as to get 
their arms tired, but they should have plenty of work 
in catching batted balls, especially of a varying kind, 
such as high fly balls, long-line hits, and grounders 
which come out from over the infield. 

Base-Running. There is one more important fea¬ 
ture of coaching a nine which requires judgment, and 
that is the base-running. It is difficult to practice 
save in games, but there is an opportunity to do some 
work by having one or two men run the bases while 
the rest of the nine field. The main points about 
base running are everlasting vigilance coupled with 
plenty of daring and judgment as to chances. The 
secret of its success consists in quick starting, getting 
away to first sharply when the ball is hit, getting a 
long lead from the bases, and being able to recover, 
reaching with the foot or hand for the bag and slid¬ 
ing. This latter can be practiced both indoors and 

18 




Baseball 


outdoors, but a man never ought to get sore or lame 
at it, especially within a week of a big match. One 
of the cardinal points for base-runners to remember 
is always to draw the throw of the fielder, if possible, 
by making a pretended start toward the next base, 
then if the throw goes wide, the base-runner will get 
the base, whereas, if it is accurate he has plenty of 
time to return to the base he was occupying. 

THE PROFESSIONAL GAME 

Professional ball playing does not differ in its 
essentials from college or high school playing. It 
simply means that the player has graduated up to a 
big position in the sport and that he must specialize 
in this work just the same as in any other line of busi¬ 
ness. The professional baseball player strives to 
keep his body at the highest point of efficiency. Even 
in winter, he does not dare relax and get logy; as he 
knows full well that the work in the spring training 
camp will be all the more arduous. We read only 
recently of a famous batter, who reported to his 
Southern training camp weighing about twenty 
pounds too much, and this proved to be a deterrent 
factor in his work for several weeks. 

Professionals generally report for duty the latter 
part of February. All of the big league clubs main¬ 
tain Southern training camps, in which for the first 
week or two practice is light to avoid overstraining 
the muscles which have been idle during the winter. 

19 


Sports and Games 

Then the work gradually stiffens up and includes 
practice games with other league clubs in the vicin¬ 
ity. On the way North these practice games con¬ 
tinue. The club aims to travel easily with small 
jumps and get in practice almost daily, if possible. 
Tt thus reports to its home grounds early in April in 
the pink of condition. After the season opens, games 
are held continuously except for days of rain or 
travel, until the close of the season, which is usually 
early in October. 

Coaching a baseball nine has now become devel¬ 
oped to such an extent that it is an art, and a set of 
players drilled by a good coach through one season 
are usually improved to a point of efficiency at least 
twenty-five percent in advance of other equally good 
players who lack this guidance and co-ordination. 
For this reason, it is not advisable to change man¬ 
agers or coaches any oftener than absolutely nec¬ 
essary. 

DEFINITIONS 

Diamond —The boundaries of the infield. 

Ball —A pitched ball which does not come within 
required distance of the batsman. 

Foul Hit —A legally batted ball which falls or 
goes outside the diamond or foul lines. 

Balk —Any false motion on the part of the pitcher 
which is calculated to deceive. (The playing rules 
define 14 varieties of balk.) 

20 


Baseball 


Dead Ball —A ball delivered to the bat by the 
pitcher, not struck at by the batsman, that touches 
any part of the batsman’s person or clothing while 
he is standing in his position. 

Block Ball —A batted or thrown ball that is 
touched, stopped or handled by a person not engaged 
in the game. 

Fair Hit —Any legally batted ball that first falls 
on fair territory inside or beyond first base or third 
base, even though it afterwards rolls into foul ter¬ 
ritory. 

Bunt Hit —A legally batted ball, not swung at, but 
met with the bat and tapped slowly within the infield 
by the batsman. If the attempt to bunt result in a 
foul not legally caught, a strike shall be called by 
the umpire. 

Strikes —(1) A pitched ball struck at by the bats¬ 
man without its touching his bat. (2) A fair ball 
legally delivered by the pitcher at which the batsman 
does not strike. (3) A foul hit ball not caught on the 
fly unless the batsman has two strikes. (4) An at¬ 
tempt to bunt which results in a foul not legally 
caught. (5) A pitched ball, at which the batsman 
strikes but misses, and which touches any part of his 
person. (6) A foul tip, held by the catcher, while 
standing within the lines of his position. When the 
batsman strikes at a pitched ball and misses it, a 
strike is called. When the batsman fails to strike 
at a pitched ball which passes over the plate at the 


Sports and Games 

legal height, between knees and shoulder, a strike 
is called. A foul tip caught by the catcher is a strike. 
If after two strikes a foul tip is batted and muffed 
by the catcher, it is not a strike. A foul hit, whether 
a fly or a ground hit, bounding to any part of foul 
ground, is a strike unless the batter has two strikes. 
After two strikes the batter may foul the ball with¬ 
out penalty unless he bunts or is caught out on a foul 
fly or on a foul tip. All bunts rolling foul are strikes. 
If the batsman strikes at the ball and misses it but 
the ball hits him, it is a strike. If the batsman, with 
either of his feet out of the batsman’s box, hits the 
ball in any way it is an illegally batted ball, in for¬ 
mer days called a foul strike, and the batsman is 
out. 

Put-Out —Any successful play on the part of the 
nine out in the field which retires an opposing player, 
such as a caught ball, or a runner touched off of base, 
or prevented from reaching base safely. 

Forced Play —A force-out can be made only when 
a base-runner legally loses the right to the base he 
occupies by reason of the batsman becoming a base- 
runner, and he is thereby obliged to advance. 

Play —An order of the umpire to begin the game 
or to resume it after its suspension. 

Time —An order of the umpire to suspend play. 
Such suspension must not extend beyond the day. 

Game —An announcement of the umpire that the 
game is terminated. 


22 


Baseball 


Inning —The term at bat of the nine players rep¬ 
resenting a club in a game and is completed when 
three of such players have been legally put out. 

Time at Bat —The term at bat of a single batsman. 
It begins when he takes his position, and continues 
until he is put out or becomes a base-runner. 

Home Run —A complete circuit of bases on a sin¬ 
gle batted ball. 

Base Hit —A fairly batted ball which cannot be re¬ 
turned to first base in time to stop the runner. Also 
called a “safe hit.” 

Sacrifice Hit —A hit by a batsman which is cal¬ 
culated to put himself out, but which results in 
advancing a runner on the bases. 

Error —A misplay either in judgment or in actual 
handling of the ball, which results to the advantage 
of the opposing side. 

Stolen Base —A base secured by a runner, after 
reaching first, which is obtained while other plays 
are proceeding, or despite the attempt of the oppos¬ 
ing side. 


23 



















BASKETBALL 






2 6 


















BASKETBALL 


'TpHE game of basketball is of comparatively re¬ 
cent origin. Credit for its invention is given to 
Dr. James Nasmith in the early part of the year 
1892. Dr. Nasmith, like other physical directors, 
was seeking a game for indoor - gymnasium work 
which would also offer some of the dash of football, 
and yet could be played within restricted quarters. 
It was first developed in the Y. M. C. A. Training 
School at Springfield, Mass., as a game for boys and 
young men. It was not long, however, before the 
directors of girls’ schools saw that this new game 
offered a fine opportunity for girls as well as for 
boys. In fact, for a time it ran the risk of becoming 
feminized. 

At the present time, however, basketball is in equal 
favor with both sexes. The girls at Vassar and other 
women’s colleges have their first and second teams 
just as they do in Princeton and other colleges for 
men. Naturally, contests are not held between teams 
of opposing sexes, but the women’s teams have 
brought their own game, which differs in a few 
essentials from the other, up to a high standard of 
perfection. 

Basketball is peculiarly adapted to high schools. 
All over the country such high school teams exist, 

27 


Sports and Games 

and the record of their contests finds much space in 
the local newspapers. Even the metropolitan dailies 
have given large space to achievements such as the 
sensational record of the Passaic (N. J.) High 
School team which in the early part of 1923 had won 
over one hundred straight victories over all oppo¬ 
nents. The men’s colleges hold their intercollegiate 
contests in this sport just as they do in football and 
baseball. There is an Eastern Intercollegiate League 
consisting of leading colleges along the Atlantic sea¬ 
board; also a Western Conference, one for the Mis¬ 
souri Valley, another for Ohio, and another for the 
Pacific Coast. In addition to these there are Ama¬ 
teur Athletic Union Championships which include 
picked teams from the Y. M. C. A. and Athletic 
Clubs generally. 

The following description of the' game is con¬ 
densed from the National Basketball Rules for 1922- 
23. The complete and unabridged rules are issued 
by the Joint Rules Committee representing the Ama¬ 
teurs’ Athletic Union, the National Collegiate Asso¬ 
ciation, and the Young Men’s Christian Association. 

The game of basketball is played by two teams 
of five each, the ball being passed from one player 
to another, by hand. The ball is never kicked. The 
purpose of each team is to score as many points as 
possible by tossing the ball into its own basket, and 
at the same time prevent the other team from secur¬ 
ing possession of the ball or scoring. 

28 


Basketball 


The playing court is a rectangular surface free 
from obstructions, 90 feet in length by 50 feet in 
width. Where space does not permit this size court 
a minimum dimension of 60 feet by 35 feet is al¬ 
lowable. 

The court is marked by well-divided lines not less 
than 2 inches in width which at every point are at 
least 3 feet from any fixed obstruction. These are 
known as side lines. The court has a center circle 
with a radius of 2 feet and is marked as the name 
indicates in the center of the court. Goal zones are 
established by lines 1 inch in width extending across 
the court parallel to, and at a distance of 17 feet 
from the inner edges of end lines. There are also 
provided what are known as Free Throw Lines, 
which are spaces marked in the court by lines per¬ 
pendicular to the end lines and at a distance of 3 
feet on either side from the middle points of the 
end line. These perpendicular lines are terminated 
and the lanes are further marked by arcs of circles 
having a 6-foot radius with their centers at the mid¬ 
dle points of the goal zone lines. 

Backboards must be provided, the dimensions of 
which are 6 feet horizontally and 4 feet vertically. 
These backboards are painted white and made of 
plate glass or wood, or any other material that is 
permanently flat and rigid. 

The backboards are located in a position at each 
end at right angles to the floor and parallel to the 

29 


Sports and Games 

end lines. Their centers lie in the perpendiculars 
erected at the points in the court 2 feet from the 
midpoints of the end lines. The face of the back- 
board shall be IS feet from the far edge of the free 
throw lines. 

The backboards are protected from the spectators 
to a distance of at least 3 feet behind and at each 
end. 

The baskets are nets of cord or other material, 
suspended from metal rings 18 inches in inside diam¬ 
eter. The nets are so constructed or tied as to check 
the ball momentarily as it passes through the basket. 

The rings are rigidly attached to the backboards 
at a point 1 foot from the bottom and 3 feet from 
either side, supported by a horizontal arm which if 
extended would pass through the center of the rings. 
The rings are placed in such a position that they 
lie in a horizontal plane 10 feet above the floor and 
so that the nearest point of the inside edge is 6 
inches from the playing surface of the backboard. 

The ball used in the game is made of rubber blad¬ 
der enclosed in a leather outside case. The ball 
when inflated should be not less than 30 inches nor 
more than 32 inches in circumference and should 
weigh not less nor more than 23 dunces. The object 
of the game is for a team to obtain control of the 
ball and finally toss it by hand up into the basket 
previously described. Each of the two teams play¬ 
ing strives to carry out this maneuver and at the 

30 



© E. Galloway 

BASKETBALL 

A close try for a goal. Basketball has the advantage of being adapted to either indoors or outdoors. 




Basketball 

same time prevent the opposing team from scoring 
upon them. 

The team as it appears upon the floor consists 
of five players; therefore, with two teams engaged 
there are not more than ten players upon the floor 
at a given time. If a player gets injured or incapaci¬ 
tated in any other way, a substitute may be provided. 

The officials of the game consist of a referee ; 
umpire, two time-keepers and two scorers. Their 
duties areas follows: 

The referee shall put the ball in play; shall decide 
when the ball is in play, when the ball is dead, to 
whom it belongs and when a goal has been made. 
He shall call violations and fouls, shall administer 
all penalties, shall recognize substitutes, and shall 
order “time out” when necessary. He shall announce 
each goal as made, indicating with his fingers the 
point value of the goal. He shall also publicly an¬ 
nounce the score at the end of each half. This final 
announcement terminates his official connection with 
the game. 

The referee shall forbid a player to continue in the 
game, who has made four personal fouls, or who has 
committed a disqualifying foul. 

The referee shall have power to call fouls for 
unsportsmanlike conduct on the part of players or 
spectators, or to make decisions on any points not 
specifically covered in the rules. 

Neither the referee nor the umpire shall have 

3i 


Sports and Games 

authority to set aside or question decisions made Dy 
the other within the limits of their respective duties 
as outlined in the rules. 

If the referee and the umpire make approximately 
simultaneous decisions on the same play, and the de¬ 
cisions involve different penalties against the same 
team, the one drawing attention to the graver of the 
two shall take precedence. 

The referee and the umpire shall have power to 
make decisions for violations of rules committed 
either within or outside the boundary lines; also at 
any moment from the beginning of play to the call 
of time at the end of the game. This includes the 
periods when the game may be momentarily stopped 
for any reason. Fouls may be called on any number 
of players at the same time. The official calling the 
foul shall designate the offender. A personal foul 
shall be indicated by the official raising his own 
hand over his own head. 

The referee shall call “time out” in case of injury 
to players. The umpire may stop the game by blow¬ 
ing his whistle in case of injury to a player which 
the referee does not see, but “time out” is taken only 
upon order of the referee. 

The referee shall inspect and approve all equip¬ 
ment, including court, baskets, ball, backboards, 
timekeepers’ and scorers’ signals. 

The umpire shall call violations and fouls com¬ 
mitted by any player, but he shall pay particular 

32 


Basketball 


attention to the players in the back field away from 
the ball. The referee shall request the umpire to 
assist in out-of-bounds decisions and to co-operate in 
enforcing the rule against coaching. 

The scorers shall record the goals made and the 
fouls committed; shall distinguish in their records 
between personal and technical fouls; and shall no¬ 
tify the referee immediately when the fourth per¬ 
sonal foul has been called on any player. Their 
records shall constitute the official score of the game. 
They shall compare their scores after each goal and 
any discrepancy shall be at once referred to the 
referee. If they fail to notify the referee at once, 
the latter shall decide in favor of the smaller score, 
unless he has knowledge that permits him to decide 
without reference to the scorers. The scorers shall 
be provided with a horn with which to signal the 
referee when a substitution is made. 

The timekeepers shall note when the game starts; 
shall deduct time consumed by stoppages during the 
game on order of the referee; and shall indicate with 
a gong, pistol, or whistle the expiration of the actual 
playing time in each half or quarter. Upon the 
sounding of the timekeepers’ signal play shall cease 
instantly, except that if the ball is in the air on a 
try-for-goal when the timekeepers’ signal is sounded, 
play shall continue until the ball has entered or 
missed the basket. The timekeepers’ signal termin¬ 
ates actual playing time in each half. 

33 


Sports and Games 

\ 

The officials shall blow a whistle whenever neces¬ 
sary to make a decision. 

PLAYING REGULATIONS 

The game is started by the referee, who tosses the 
ball up between two players of opposite teams. The 
game consists of two halves of 20 minutes each, with 
an intermission of 10 minutes between the halves. 
This is the time of actual play. These times may be 
changed by mutual agreement of the captains. When 
a foul is committed simultaneously with, or just pre¬ 
vious to the sounding of the timekeepers’ signal, time 
shall be allowed for the free throw. 

Captains are notified three minutes before the ter¬ 
mination of the intermission between the halves. If 
either team is not on the floor ready for play within 
one minute after the referee calls play, either at the 
beginning of the second half or after time has been 
taken out for any reason, the ball shall be put in 
play in the same manner as if both teams were on 
the floor ready to play. 

The visiting team shall have choice of baskets in 
the first half. For the second half the teams shall 
change baskets. 

The ball may be thrown, batted, bounced, rolled, 
or dribbled in any direction. 

The ball is put in play in the center circle: 

1. At the beginning of each half, or quarter, and 
of each extra period. 


34 


Basketball 


2. After a goal has been made. 

3. After an illegal free throw has been made. 

4. After the ball has lodged in the supports of the 
basket. 

5. After the last free throw following a double 
foul. In the following manner: 

Each center player stands with both feet within 
his half of the center circle, with one hand in con¬ 
tact with the middle of the small of his back. This 
position must be maintained until the ball has been 
tapped by one or both players. The other players 
may take any position upon the court they may de¬ 
sire, provided they do not interfere in any way with 
the referee or the center players. The referee shall 
toss the ball upward in a plane at right angles to the 
side lines between the center players, to a height 
greater than either of them can jump, and so that 
it will drop between them. 

When the referee puts the ball in play in the cen¬ 
ter, he shall blow his whistle when the ball reaches 
its highest point, after which it must be tapped by 
either one or both of the center players. If the ball 
touches the floor without being tapped by one of 
the jumpers, the referee shall put it in play again 
in the same place. 

When the referee tosses the ball up between two 
players elsewhere than in the center, the players shall 
assume the same position in relation to each other 
as when jumping in the center. 

35 


Sports and Games 

A game is decided by the scoring of the greater 
number of points in the playing time. 

A goal made from the field counts 2 points; a goal 
from a free throw counts 1 point. 

If the score is a tie at the expiration of the second 
half, play is continued without delay or change of 
baskets for an extra period of 5 minutes, or as many 
such periods of 5 minutes as may be necessary to 
break the tie. Each extra period is considered a 
continuation of the second half, but at the begin¬ 
ning of each extra period the ball is put in play at 
the center. 

Any team refusing to play after receiving instruc¬ 
tions to do so from the referee forfeits the game. 
The score of a forfeited game is 2-0. 

VALUE OF TEAMWORK 

Basketball, like baseball and football, is an excel¬ 
lent example of the benefits of teamwork. Its suc¬ 
cess is absolutely dependent upon the co-ordination 
of the team-mates. They must learn at the outset to 
play together—to subordinate desires for individual 
glory to the best interests of the whole team. To 
illustrate: a player (A) has the ball and can throw 
for goal, or can pass the ball to a player (B) nearer 
to the goal and having a better opportunity to cage 
the ball. Individual interest will lead (A) to throw 
for the goal. He may take it, and thus win for him¬ 
self credit for a brilliant play. This is one of the 

36 


Basketball 


faults of beginners and always of selfish players. If 
(A) looks mainly to the interests of the team, he 
must forego his own chance for prominence and must 
play the ball to (B), who may secure the popular 
applause, much of which in this case really belongs 
to (A). In case (A) throws directly for the goal 
and makes it, he is not thereby justified in the play; 
on the contrary, he should be censured by the coach 
or captain. In the long run such a player, who puts 
his own interests above that of the team, will prove 
a detriment to the team. 

The single instance given is but a simple illustra¬ 
tion of what characterizes basketball. A team of 
moderate players, but who play well together, who 
play a strong team game, will defeat a team of ex¬ 
perts who play each one for himself. This has been 
repeatedly demonstrated. 


37 





* 





BOATING 


ROWING 

CANOEING 

SAIL BOATS 

MOTOR BOATS 




ROWING 


ROWING is the oldest of the organized college 
sports, and has also been taken up by other ath¬ 
letic organizations. Almost a century ago, the two 
English universities of Oxford and Cambridge be¬ 
gan to hold annual rowing contests. Since 1841 they 
have held 73 such contests, up to 1923, over a four- 
and-one-fourth mile course, and it is interesting to 
note that Oxford has won 39 and Cambridge 33, 
and one race is recorded as a dead heat. That must 
have been a gruelling contest! 

In America, the earliest college boat club was 
formed at Yale, in 1843; and in the following year 
another was organized at Harvard. In 1852 the two 
college crews met for the first time, the race being 
for two miles on Lake Winnepesaukee. Harvard 
won. Three years later the course was changed to 
the Connecticut River at Springfield, and lengthened 
to three miles. Since 1878, the course has been over 
the Thames River, at New London. 

In 1896, an Intercollegiate Rowing Regatta was 
instituted upon the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 
and has since become an annual feature. The dis¬ 
tance has varied between two and four miles. Of 
recent years, both distances have been rowed. The 

4i 


Sports and Games 

colleges competing have included Cornell, Washing¬ 
ton, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Syracuse, Wisconsin, 
Georgetown, and the Navy. 

During the early years of this sport Princeton did 
not compete, as it had no watercourse. The gen¬ 
erosity of Andrew Carnegie in providing an arti¬ 
ficial lake near the campus enabled this university to 
organize a competing crew. Dual and triangular 
regattas have been held with other crews, chiefly 
Eastern; although Wisconsin and California have 
been represented in some meets. 

Colleges have met outside crews as well in the 
exceptionally interesting American Henley Regattas, 
held annually at Philadelphia, usually in the latter 
part of May. Here we find Princeton, Pennsylvania, 
Yale, Navy, and perhaps three or four other colleges 
represented, alongside of crews from other clubs. 

Indeed, colleges by no means have a monopoly 
on this very healthful sport. Each year the “World 
Almanac” prints a long list of amateur rowing con¬ 
tests, such as the “Golden Jubilee and National 
Championship Regatta of the National Association 
of Amateur Oarsmen of America” (certainly a 
mouthful!), the American Henley already spoken 
of, the People’s Regatta, and the Gold Challenge 
Cup Race. Races include single gigs, single shells, 
double shells, quadruple shells, four-oared gigs, four- 
oared shells, and eight-oared shells. 

Rowing, like other sports, was interrupted by the 

42 


Rowing 

World War, but great interest was shown in its re¬ 
vival. In 1920, a veteran crew from the U. S. Naval 
Academy, at Annapolis, defeated a picked crew from 
England, at Brussels, for the Olympic champion¬ 
ship. 

ROWING REQUIREMENTS 

Rowing is a sport which requires a great deal of 
steadiness of purpose, because, unlike other sports, 
daily practice does not consist in contests, but in 
practice without the stimulus of rivalry save that of 
securing a place in the boat. It is true that of late 
years, college crews have been trained to contest 
more freely than in the old days, and occasional 
brushes between first and second crews, or with class 
crews, enliven the somewhat dull routine of prepara¬ 
tion. But, for all that, there are weeks and months 
of training and long days of hard work when no 
enthusiastic crowd assembles to watch and inspire 
them by their presence. For this reason probably, 
more than any other, coaching has been longer recog¬ 
nized in rowing than in the other sports. It is neces¬ 
sary that all the men in the crew row together, and 
some of the best practice consists in early rows of 
many miles, in which the mere fact of sitting behind 
another man and watching him tends to make all 
the men more uniform in action. Many a man be¬ 
comes discouraged in rowing, but those who per¬ 
severe eventually reap reward for all their work. 

43 


Sports and Games 

A certain adaptability is regarded as essential, and 
as in any other contest requiring skill, it is probably 
true that some men have the knack of imitating 
others and following instructions more than others, 
and these are men who are considered adaptable as 
oarsmen. As far as the build of a man goes, it is 
not essential that he be a giant, either in stature 
or strength. Other things being equal, it is probably 
desirable to have an eight-oared crew with four 
powerful men in the waist of the boat, but winning 
crews have had men who would hardly answer that 
description. It is also desirable that the men sit as 
nearly uniform as possible, that is, from the hips to 
\the shoulders; the height is something the same. 
This makes it more simple to have every stroke of 
the same length. Endurance is an essential, and that, 
too, whether in a mile race or a four mile race, for 
the effort is adapted to the distance, and a crew is 
expected to row themselves out by the time they pass 
the line unless they have a marked lead. 

For the organization of a boat club some proper 
piece of water is essential. It may be a river, it may 
be tide-water, and it may be a still-water lake. Of 
all these, probably a still-water lake is the most satis¬ 
factory, because it is possible there to get exact meas¬ 
urement of the work of various crews, and to tell by 
actual times over a measured distance the advantage 
of certain measurements in men, rigging or stroke, 
and this naturally gives the coach or captain a more 

44 


Rowing 

definite idea of the value of any change. But for all 
that, any course where a mile or even three-quarters 
of a mile of good water can be obtained is good 
enough to support a crew. 

Of boats there are an infinite variety, from a single 
scull up to the eight-oared shell. The boats most 
commonly used are single-sculls, pair-oars, six-oared 
shells and barges, and eight-oared shells and barges. 
A shell, it should be understood, is a more delicate, 
cranky piece of work than a barge, and men or boys 
rowing for the first time should begin in broad boats 
of almost any kind, and gradually work their way up 
until they can row in a barge, and from that they can 
graduate to a shell. One of the essentials in any boat 
club is to take care of the equipment. These fragile 
boats which are used for racing can not be bumped 
up against a wharf or grounded in the middle of a 
bar, while the men are sitting in the boat, without 
damage that can hardly be repaired. Old boats 
should be used for early practice, and every boat 
when not in use should be shelved, that is, hung upon 
a number of brackets, bottom up, four to six of these 
brackets being necessary for the ordinary eight-oared 
shell, as they must be near enough together to prevent 
sagging. The boat should be kept well varnished, 
with bolts, out-riggers, screws, locks, and stretchers 
all kept in good order. The boat should be wiped 
when taken from the water, both inside and out. Be¬ 
fore the race it is customary to rub down the boat 

45 


Sports and Games 

with pumice stone and grease it with oil or some 
similar substance. The customary eight-oared rac¬ 
ing shell weighs in the neighborhood of 230 to 270 
pounds. The cedar boat weighs something more 
than the paper boat, and while a paper boat is stiffer 
at the outset, it is claimed that the cedar boat holds 
its stiffness longer. The length is about sixty feet, 
and the depth some nine inches, and the breadth 
from twenty-two to twenty-five in the middle, and 
varying down to a foot and a half at the ends of the 
cock-pit. The oars weigh about seven or seven and 
one-half pounds apiece, and are about twelve feet 
long. 

In launching a boat the crew take it from the rack, 
carrying it usually keel up to the edge of the float, 
four men being on each side of the boat, and when 
the edge of the float is reached, one set of four men 
hold the boat, or rather they lift it above their heads 
while the men on the side next the water come under. 
Then all eight lift the boat out on to the water. 

ROWING TERMS 

There are certain rowing terms which should be 
understood, as they are used in coaching and in 
descriptions generally. 

“Ready All” means the eight oars are put back to 
the full reach, the knees of the men being bent, the 
slides all aft, and the arms extended. 

46 



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Rowing 

“Give Way” is the order for the men to swing up 
from the ready position after the beginning of the 
stroke. 

“Avast” means stop rowing, and this order should 
be given when the oars are in the water, and not 
when they are on the recover, except in the case of 
critical moments. 

“Hold” is an order instructing a man to keep the 
oar buried at right angles to the side of the boat, the 
plane of the blade parallel to the surface. 

“Back water” is the reverse of rowing. 

“Catch” is when the oars take the water on the 
stroke and the shoulders swing up. 

“The Finish” is when the oars leave the water at 
the completion of the stroke. 

“Recover” is the set of movements made by an 
oarsman from the time of the finish until he reaches 
the position of catch again. 

“Bevel of the Oar” is the angle it makes with the 
water when being dipped. 

“Time” indicates the unison of the crew. 

“Bucking” or “Meeting” the oar is letting the body 
come toward the oar at the finish when the arms are 
pulled in. 

“To slump” is to settle down with the upper part 
of the body at the finish of the stroke. 

“Rushing the slide” is to moderate the sliding 
seat instead of keeping it under control with the feet 
on the stretcher. 


47 


Sports and Games 

“To swing out” is to fail to keep the body in line 
over the keel. 

To “Get in late” or to “Get out late” is to make 
the stroke after the rest of the crew. 

“Short on catch” means not reaching far enough 
toward the bow with the oar at the full reach. 

To “clip” is to row the first part of the stroke in 
the air. 

HOW TO MAN AND ROW A BOAT 

Rigging is a most delicate matter, and only those 
who follow the sport very closely or who are profes¬ 
sional boatmen understand about it. It consists in 
getting a man so fitted as regards his seat, out-rigger, 
stretcher, oar and slide, as to do his work at the maxi¬ 
mum of efficiency, and at the same time keep with 
the rest of the crew. 

The stroke means the entire movement of the oars¬ 
men in sending the shell through the water by a cer¬ 
tain repetition of acts, consisting of repeated pulling 
of the oars in the water. There are two parts to the 
stroke—the stroke proper, that is from the catch to 
the finish, and the recover, from the time the oar 
comes out of the water on the finish until it again 
enters it on the catch. The stroke itself consists of 
three parts, the catch, the pull through, and the fin¬ 
ish. The recover consists of the feather, the carrying 
of the blade back over the water, and the turning of 
it up for the catch. While he is making the stroke the 

48 


Rowing 

oarsman swings up with his shoulders, pushes out his 
legs until his knees are nearly straight and finally 
brings the oar to the body with his arms. During 
the recover these movements are reversed. He first 
gets his hands out, then bends his knees, his shoulders 
come forward, and he is ready for the next stroke. 

Over the method of performing these acts, there 
has been more discussion than would fill twenty books 
the size of this one. There have been advocates of 
the fast stroke, of the slow stroke, of the long stroke, 
and the short stroke. There are schools of rowing, 
and have been ever since college racing was taken 
up. No one has yet satisfactorily settled all the points 
connected with rowing, and even one of the simplest 
—the question of the wide or narrow blade—is a 
point upon which oarsmen still differ radically. But 
there is one point upon which all are agreed, and 
that is harmony. That the men in a crew must row 
as nearly alike as possible in order to get speed out 
of the boat, and still more, that every man must do 
a certain part of the work at least in perfect time with 
his companions. Upon these two points it is impos¬ 
sible to go astray. After that one may follow all 
sorts of schools and never row well, when a crew, 
entirely lacking in knowledge, but having rowed to¬ 
gether for a long time, may turn out fast. 

An oarsman about to row, having taken his oar 
in hand, proceeds to embark.* This he should do by 

* From the “Athletic Guide,” Spalding's Athletic Library. 

49 


Sports and Games 

laying the blade of his oar in the water, if on the 
outside, or on the float if on the shore-side oar, and 
then stepping into the boat with his face to the stern, 
putting one foot on the keelson, lengthwise—not 
athwart it, for fear of forcing his toe or heel through 
the boat—and, stooping, should let himself down 
gently on the seat by placing a hand on each gun¬ 
wale. He should next ship his oar, placing the han¬ 
dle in the rowlock outside. He should sit square 
and exactly opposite the handle of his oar, not 
askew. The body should be erect, with the shoul¬ 
ders slightly thrown back and the elbows close to 
the flanks. 

The oar should be held firmly yet lightly in both 
hands, the outside one close to the end of the handle 
—but not at the end, capping it—with the fingers 
above and the thumb underneath it, although some 
men prefer the thumb of the outside hand in the same 
position as the fingers—and the inside hand, or that 
next the loom or body of the oar, from one and one- 
half to two inches, though not more than two and 
one-half inches away from, but grasping the oar more 
convexly than its fellows, the thumb underneath; 
bearing in mind always that the mechanical power 
of the outside hand is the greater in the bare pulling, 
and the inside hand mainly guides and manipulates 
the oar. If the inside hand is held too low, a good 
deal of force is lost, the arm is bent, the shoulders 
are not squared and the beginning of the stroke is 

50 





Rowing 

weakened. The forearms should be below the level 
of the handle, and the wrists dropped and relaxed, 
the oar being now quiescent, at right angles to the 
keel of the boat, and feathered. The divers posi¬ 
tions of the two hands and wrists enable the oar to 
be wielded with greater facility than if alike, and 
permit of both arms being stretched out perfectly 
straight, not crooked or bent—when getting forward. 

In rowing the stroke, the body should be inclined 
forward, with the backbone perfectly straight, the 
stomach being kept well out and down between the 
legs, the chest forward and raised as much as pos¬ 
sible; in fact, the position of the trunk will be like 
that of a soldier at drill, except that in rowing, 
the great secret is to keep the stomach out, whereas 
in drilling it must be kept in. 

The shoulders should not be allowed to come too 
far forward; neither should one be advanced before 
the other, nor should one be higher than its fellow. 
The arms should play freely in the shoulder joint, 
as stiffness here and at the hips is a real hindrance to 
the best form. They should be perfectly straight 
from the shoulders to the wrists, and they should be 
treated in the first part of the stroke as mere connect¬ 
ing-rods between the body and the oar. If they are 
crooked, immediately the weight and strength are 
thrown on the handle of the oar, and thus the first 
part of the stroke is lost. The inside wrist, however, 
must be somewhat raised and the outside one bent 

5i 


4 

Sports and Games 

slightly round, in order that the knuckles may be 
parallel to the oar, as the oar must be firmly grasped 
with both hands, otherwise the beginning of the 
stroke will be weak. But it must be kept nearly flat, 
though pressed down the least bit in the world; in 
other words, it must show only the natural hollow. 

The hands should hold the oar firmly, not with 
the tips as usual, but with the whole of the fingers 
well round the oar, and each separate finger—not 
merely the first two—must feel the oar distinctly. 
The knuckles of the thumb must not be more than 
one and one-half or two inches apart at most, for if 
kept too far off one another, the inside arm is sure 
to get bent and the inside shoulder thrown back. 
The head must be held up, the eyes looking in a 
direct line astern, and the feet must be firmly planted 
against the stretcher. In reaching forward, the hands 
should be shot out straight from the body without the 
least pause, a peculiar way of doing this, but impos¬ 
sible to describe, though easily discernible, being the 
mark of first-class oarsmen. 

Almost as soon as the oar has passed the knees, the 
wrists should be raised to bring the blade at right 
angles to the water preparatory to dipping it, the fact 
of delaying this motion often resulting in not putting 
the oar in square. The body of the oarsman and the 
sliding seat are then drawn forward concurrently by 
the aid of the stretcher boots in readiness for taking 
the stroke. Care must, however, be taken not to 

52 


Rowing 

lower the hands too much, as this practice leads to 
chopping and cutting the stroke. 

Men differ slightly in their length of reach, but 
every one ought to be able to get the handle of his 
oar over his stretcher, and when there, he should 
raise his hands straight up at once, as, if not raised 
at once, the result is a hang, and if not straight the 
stroke is cut. The oar should then be instantaneously 
covered up to the shoulder, but no further, and im¬ 
mediately it is in this position the stroke should com¬ 
mence. The rower should “knit himself up,” as the 
Irish call it, he should then spring like a bow when 
the string is loosed, and bring the muscles of his back 
and legs into play, as far as possible raising his weight 
off his seat, thus using his whole strength and weight 
at once and together. The motions at the end of the 
feather and at the beginning of the stroke are, how¬ 
ever, so simultaneous and take place so rapidly that 
it is very difficult to analyze them. 

It is in this part of the stroke that five minutes’ 
looking at a good oarsman rowing is worth more 
than any number of words: in fact, no words really 
convey what is wanted. A coach may tell his pupil 
to “hit” the water, to “smite” it, etc., which may con¬ 
vey to the mind of a man who knows how to row 
what is required, but which can never impart the 
idea to a tyro. Catching the beginning properly, 
like swinging, must come from inspiration. It will, 
however, assist a crew immensely if the coach wil l 

53 



Sports and Games 

get the boat and row a few short spins at a slow 
stroke, employing all his power at the beginning and 
making the crew follow his example, but he must be 
a strong man, as he will have the whole weight to 
lift at the commencement of the stroke. 

Having thus learned to catch the beginning of the 
stroke with his body only, the rower should finish it 
with his arms and shoulders, taking care to send his 
elbows close past his side, and to drop his shoulders 
well down and back, keeping his head up and his 
chest out. In the next place, the whole strength of 
his arms and shoulders should be put into the finish 
of the stroke. This may seem to be recommending 
the fault of rowing the stroke out to the end, but it 
is really not so. This fault arises either from the 
beginning of the stroke having been shirked, from 
not using the full force of the body, or from not 
bending the arms soon enough. If this happens, the 
body has to be kept waiting until the arms come up 
to it, and hence an unseemly jerk. It is very difficult 
to determine the exact period at which the arms are 
to be brought into play, but it ought to be done about 
the time that the body is perpendicular. Thus the 
full weight and strength of the rower would be ap¬ 
plied, and the oar will be dashed through the water 
in the way that marks a good oarsman. 

The oar should be brought straight home to the 
chest, the root of the thumbs touching the body about 
an inch or less below the button of the breast bone 

54 


Rowing 

where the ribs branch off. Thus every inch of water 
is made use of. When there, the hands should be 
dropped straight down and then be turned over and 
shot out again close to the legs, and the body should 
follow without the least pause. If this be not done 
the oar will be feathered under water, and the boat 
buried; water will be thrown on to the next oar and 
the recovery impeded. In effecting the recovery, 
the slide is an important agent; but before the for¬ 
ward sliding movement takes place, the body should 
be swung evenly forward from the hips, not with a 
jerk or plunge, or quicker at one time than another, 
but freely and easily, as if the hip joint worked well 
and not stiffly. Much benefit may be derived from 
watching two or three of the best oarsmen that can 
be found, observing them carefully, forming an ideal 
model, and then endeavoring to copy it. 

Two or three points should particularly be borne 
in mind: First, that when the hands are raised at the 
commencement of the stroke, and the oar, ipso facto, 
struck down below the surface, the whole of the 
power should be brought to bear at the moment of 
the oar’s contact with the water, so as to create the 
greatest effect in the first or vital part of the stroke, 
one of the most important and too frequently broken 
laws of rowing; secondly, that the pull home to the 
chest should be in a perfectly straight line, thus caus¬ 
ing a horizontal stroke through the water, which is 
another law frequently disregarded; thirdly, that the 

55 


Sports and Games 

finish of the stroke should be as quiet and easy as it 
is possible to make it, but without lessening the force 
applied, which naturally diminishes, because at the 
first part of the stroke before the rowlock, the oar 
is at an acute angle to the boat, and after that at an 
obtuse angle. Here it is that one so often sees the 
stroke wind up with a jerk, as if to make some use 
of the little strength remaining in the human frame, 
the oar flirted out of the water, the elbows dug 
sharply back in an awkward and ungainly manner, 
and the body harshly and suddenly jolted forward. 

Next in importance are the movements described 
by the oar itself, starting from a state of rest, i.e., 
feathered and at right angles to the keel of the boat. 

When the forward reach is taken, the blade of the 
oar should travel backward in the air, horizontally, 
at the distance of a few inches from the surface of 
the water—of course, depending upon the state of 
the surface, whether smooth or rough—until dipped 
for the stroke. As regards this dip, it is imperative 
that the blade descend to the proper depth before any 
force is applied, otherwise the stroke will be cut. 
To effect this the hands must be raised sharply, 
and the stroke must be instantaneously commenced. 
When on the feather, the oar passing the knees 
should be gradually turned before immersion, the 
feather concluding and the stroke beginning at once, 
with no interval whatever. Hence it will be per¬ 
ceived that the line described by the end of the blade, 

56 


Rowing 

about which there are numerous theories and a va¬ 
riety of opinions, will be nearly parallel with the 
water until entering it, when it will immediately be 
dipped with a powerful scoop. 

Then the entry of the oar into the water can not 
be too sudden or too decided, so that it be not a chop 
and a splash; and for this purpose the muscles of 
the arms should be gathering themselves together as 
the hands reach forward. It is a well-known and 
indisputable law that the greatest power can be ap¬ 
plied in the first half of the stroke; that is to say, 
before the oar comes level with or abreast of the 
rowlock, and that the further aft it goes subsequently 
to passing that point, the more the power decreases. 
Such being the case, it is only an act of common- 
sense to endeavor to do as much work as possible 
when it will tell the most, and when it contributes 
to lift a boat lightly along the top of the water. On 
the other hand, if the application of the strength is 
deferred until the last part of the stroke, it is brought 
to bear when it is of least service; a great and useless 
expenditure of power ensues, and the boat, instead 
of being assisted over the water, is driven down and 
buried in it, her way being therefore checked. The 
same result ensues from men letting their weight 
rest on the seat, instead of letting the weight rest on 
the stretcher and handle of the oar—in a word, from 
rowing with the arms unassisted by the body, instead 
of using both. 


57 



Sports and Games 

We now come to the position in which the blade 
is immersed, and I would observe that this is a most 
important point. It is said that the blade should 
descend at right angles to the water. In this opinion 
I can not altogether coincide, although even such a 
position is far superior to an entry with the back of 
the blade forming an acute angle with the water, 
and the front of the blade an obtuse one. In either 
of these cases, however, there is something wrong 
with the thowl rowed against, with the side of the 
loom which bears against the thowl, or with that on 
which the oar rests when traversing the water. The 
proper position is for the front or hollow of the blade 
to be looking slightly downward upon (not along) 
the surface; its entry is consequently less than a right 
angle. This enables the oar to take full and square 
hold of the water at once; it prevents its running 
down too deep, and, if firmly and scientifically ma¬ 
nipulated, it obviates splashing. At the same time 
the oar ought not to be turned over too much, as 
otherwise it will not enter the water easily and will 
be apt to twist in the hand, besides straining the wrist; 
but no effort should be made whatsoever to force it 
over. 

The depth to which the oar descends through the 
medium of this peculiar catch, is to the shoulder or 
upper end of the blade. In this position it must 
continue until the hands are up to the chest—not 
stopping at a distance of a foot from it—when the 

58 



Rowing 

stroke is concluded, and the feather commences. In 
the traverse through the water the blade of the oar 
should be barely covered, and no more—this is an 
accepted rule—and with the unusually light boats 
used at the present day strict attention to this prin¬ 
ciple must be paid. When bringing the stroke to 
an end, the blade of the oar by a sudden movement— 
caused by dropping the hands and turning the wrists 
—is feathered or brought into plane with the surface 
of the water, from being at right angles to it. 

This action should take place at the moment when 
the oar leaves the water, and the lower end of the 
blade, by being turned suddenly cleanly aft as the 
loom rotates in the rowlock, throws the water astern 
in a little eddying whirlpool, and the whole business 
of the stroke is completed. The appearance of this 
whirlpool should be carefully studied, as it is a pretty 
good criterion of how a man is rowing, and if a coach 
happens to be pulling himself, as is occasionally the 
case, it is one of the only guides he has in judging 
how his pupils are rowing behind him. It is almost 
impossible to describe the look it ought to wear, but 
plenty of small air-bubbles should keep rising, as 
in a soda-water bottle, long after the swirl has left 
the oar; the smaller eddies should be deep and well 
marked. Very light rowing makes a splash that soon 
subsides and deep rowing shows no air-bubbles. 

The foregoing component parts of a stroke, and its 
succeeding feather, it must be admitted, are numer- 

59 




Sports and Games 

ous, and to a certain extent apparently incompatible, 
but yet they are so blended in the work done by an 
expert oarsman as to seem but one action. Each, 
however, may be fully and correctly performed, and 
the sum of these separated actions is consequently 
also perfect. 

In conclusion, I will briefly recapitulate the main 
points in good rowing. They are as follows: First, 
a full, fair reach-out over the toes, with both arms 
perfectly straight; secondly, a square hold of the 
water at the dip of the oar, with an application of 
the whole power at the moment of immersion; 
thirdly, a firm stroke of medium depth, pulled 
straight through the water, without wavering and 
without vibration, yet always kept long and duly 
light; fourthly, a graceful, easy finish, with a clear 
turn of the water off the after-ledge of the blade— 
the feather being light, moderately low and rapid— 
and an instantaneous movement when the oar com¬ 
pletes the feather, and descends under the water. 
Then comes the most delicate and important of all 
—the recovery—the stealthily creeping forward on 
the slides so as not to check the forward progress of 
the boat, and the final assuming once more of the 
position from which to start the next stroke. 


60 



CANOEING 


x HE most popular of all light water craft is un¬ 
doubtedly the canoe. Its light weight and easy 
management, no less than its trickiness, make a very 
definite appeal to young folks of both sexes and to 
campers and outdoor enthusiasts generally. 

The canoe has its enemies as well as its devotees. 
Your anti-canoeist will tell you that the canoe is 
unreliable, unmanageable in choppy water, tricky 
even in smooth water, headstrong and otherwise 
troublesome. These indictments may all be true, yet 
their presence lends charm to canoeing for venture¬ 
some youngsters. Expertly handled most of such 
objections disappear. At the same time, there are 
many advantages which commend the canoe for a 
variety of uses. 

First, it is light and easily propelled over the water 
and can be portaged around rapids, rocky points or 
other non-navigable places. 

Second, it is much more adaptable for light gen¬ 
eral use around a camp than is the row-boat. For 
some reason most row-boats are made extremely 
clumsy and unattractive. Your canoe is the embodi¬ 
ment of grace alongside of this patient, unemotional 
beast of burden. 

61 


Sports and Games 

Third, the canoe lends itself easily to water stunts 
of all sorts and especially to light sailing, of which 
more further on. 

BUILDING A CANOE 

Many boys and young men have been seized with 
the ambition to build their own canoes; many in fact 
have succeeded; but where one has succeeded, scores 
have failed. To build a canoe properly requires not 
only the best materials but a knowledge of carpentry 
and of navigation of no mean order. The Indians 
used to make their staunch canoes out of birch bark, 
and our large museums still contain examples of their 
work. Nowadays, however, it is really cheaper to 
buy one. The writer knows of two boys who under¬ 
took to build a canoe one summer and who spent 
nearly ten dollars apiece for material alone, to say 
nothing of their labor, when for a reasonable sum 
the two together could have purchased for joint use 
a much more seaworthy craft 

In building or buying a canoe, the first question 
which is raised is, shall it have a keel? This vexed 
question has been argued ever since we succeeded 
the Indians in building boats and it is as far from 
settlement as ever. Arguments in favor of the keel 
show that it lends staunchness and durability to a 
craft. When lifting a canoe over a log or other 
obstruction, especially if the craft is heavily loaded, 
your keelless canoe is liable to buckle or become 

62 


Canoeing 

warped under the strain. A keel prevents the bot¬ 
tom from becoming seraped when being hauled over 
stones, rocks or other obstructions. It provides a 
support for the mast if the latter is stepped down 
into the boat. Those who do not like keels say that 
to add one increases the draft of the boat by an inch 
or more and this increases the likelihood of the canoe 
sticking when going over a shallow bit of water. 
When portaging, the keel adds that much to the 
weight. Some argue also that the keel detracts from 
the grace and ease of the vessel. 

Still others have adopted a compromise prac¬ 
tice of running a thin strip of hardwood such as 
spruce or maple about half an inch thick and two 
inches wide from stem to stern down the center of the 
outside of the keel. This strip shields the canoe from 
a great many bumps, bruises and scrapes and adds 
considerable rigidity without increasing the weight 
or the draft appreciably. 

SIZE AND WEIGHT 

Says Warren H. Miller in “Canoeing, Sailing, 
and Motor-Boating”: “In picking a canoe, the safest 
and fastest model has quite a flat bottom, with a 
sharp, round turn to the bilge. The tippy ones are 
those deep and round on the bottom with no bilge, 
having no more stability than a barrel. The flat bot¬ 
tom draws but little water, slides over the stream like 
a duck, and makes her a prime sailer because she is 

63 


Sports and Games 

so staunch. The dimensions of my canoe, a faster 
canoe by hours than many another model which she 
has raced down stream, are: length, 16 feet; beam, 
33 inches; depth amidships, 12 inches; depth bow 
and stern, 24 inches; width of camparatively flat bot¬ 
tom, 24 inches. The cheaper type canoe, one of 
which is owned by my boys, has the following di¬ 
mensions: length, 15 feet 6 inches; beam, 31 inches; 
depth amidships 12*4 inches; depth, bow and stern, 
22 inches; width of comparatively flat bottom, 16 
inches. This latter canoe is much more tottly than 
mine, hard to sail, and nowhere so staunchly built. 
Each canoe weighs about 60 pounds.” 

LEARNING TO PADDLE 

The novice should approach his canoe carefully 
and by easy stages, much as one would approach a 
skittish colt. First, study your craft and learn its 
center of gravity and how to adapt yourself to changes 
of current and wind. Take your first lesson in shal¬ 
low water and with a bathing suit on, so that if the 
craft shows a tendency to tip you will be quite ready 
for it and will really not care whether it tips or not. 
Learn by experiment how far over the canoe will 
luff before anything serious happens. Later, as your 
confidence grows, you will be able to adapt yourself 
automatically to its whims and caprices, much as a 
bicycle rider learns to swing with the swaying of his 
machine. 


6 4 


Canoeing 

However, no matter how expert you get in the 
management of your canoe, do not treat it as a place 
to skylark in. A staunch and solid row-boat will 
permit a certain amount of liberty where a canoe 
may resent it. We have seen foolish young people 
out in a canoe changing positions, shifting paddles 
recklessly, and in other ways inviting trouble, and 
more than once the trouble has occurred. How many 
tragedies could be summed up under the one word, 
carelessness! 

Learn to paddle in still water where there is little 
or no current, preferably a canal, pond or lake. 
Begin by sitting in the bow of your craft while a 
more experienced canoeist is sitting in the stern— 
both of you with paddles in hand. You will soon 
learn that the oarsman in the stern will be able to 
steer the craft and steady you through his point of 
vantage. Learn to take long even strokes and time 
your work with his. 

The beginner or amateur oarsman is easily located 
by the onlooker on the shore. He usually reaches 
too far ahead for his stroke and digs down too deeply 
with his paddle. Don’t waste your energy scooping 
up water. You only lose your reserve strength in 
fighting it. Put your shoulder, arm and wrist into 
a light easy stroke in which the paddle is not buried 
too deeply into the water, then propel your craft 
forward. Put your strength into the stroke just as 
your left wrist passes your left hip, in paddling on 

65 


Sports and Games 

that side, and while your right hand is thrusting the 
top of the paddle forward. In other words, at this 
moment it becomes the fulcrum of the lever. The 
moment the paddle reaches an awkward incline in 
the rear for you, lift it out cleanly without spattering 
or making unnecessary noises, lift forward cleanly 
and again insert it just ahead of you in the water at 
the point where you can control the whole motion 
easily. You will find after a lot of practice that there 
is a certain rhythm in this motion, which prevents 
it from tiring you if you are at all seasoned, and by 
occasionally changing from side to side you can 
paddle for a long time without undue fatigue. Re¬ 
member always, don’t fight the water but insert the 
paddle almost with a caressing motion. We have 
seen two expert paddlers pass by within twenty feet 
of the shore and so noiseless were they in their strokes 
that we did not know they were going by, until the 
eye itself beheld them. The Indians usually prided 
themselves upon their silence in the water, and their 
ability to surprise their enemies or the wild game 
which they were stalking. 

After you have become thoroughly familiar with 
the stroke from the bow end of the canoe, it is time 
to try the stern stroke, and again for the first time 
or two it is well to have an experienced man in the 
bow to coach you. You will find that the canoe 
responds far more quickly through the stern stroke 
than through the bow stroke. If the paddler in the 

66 


Canoeing 

bow is weaker than you, you can easily correct his 
paddling and steer a straight course by accommodat¬ 
ing your stroke to his own. Don’t hurry him but 
insist always on a modulated and quiet stroke. The 
easiest way for you to correct his wrong course is 
by a slight turn of your paddle at the end of your 
stroke. This twist of the paddle is constantly used 
by canoeists when paddling alone. They soon be¬ 
come so expert in this particular that they never 
shift paddles from side to side for the sake of steer¬ 
ing the craft but only when it becomes necessary to 
ease up one set of muscles. We have watched canoe¬ 
ists paddle for an hour at a stretch steering their 
canoe in all sorts of directions and without shifting 
the paddle from the chosen side. The trick of this 
is to bring your paddle back with an easy sweep and 
then just at the end of this stroke twist it with your 
hand and wrist over to the right or left as may be 
desired. If a short turn is needed, the paddle is held 
for a moment deeply embedded in the water until 
the prow of the canoe swings in the direction desired. 
The only objection to this sudden shifting is that it 
is equivalent to backing water and retards the speed 
of the canoe. 

Where there is a slight current, the canoeist will 
have to adapt his paddling to its vagaries. For ex¬ 
ample, in paddling down stream, the stroke is quite 
different from the one that would be used in turning 
or in driving the canoe upstream. If there is a slight 

67 


Sports and Games 

current crossing the bows it further complicates the 
steering when one is alone in the canoe. Experiment 
alone can determine what is the best stroke to use 
under such varied conditions. The principal thing 
to remember, however, is not to dig the paddle too 
deeply into the water, not to hasten the stroke unduly, 
and above all not to lose one’s head. If the craft 
does not respond at once to one type of paddling and 
steering, try another. 

Ofttimes a craft that is very cranky and unman¬ 
ageable, when paddled one way, will respond in¬ 
stantly when paddled in another style—due to course 
riffles or breezes. Sometimes the fault is due to the 
way one is seated in the craft. Most canoes nowa¬ 
days are built with two light seats, the one in the 
bow being placed just far enough back to allow the 
paddler leg room. The stern seat is placed so far 
back in some instances that there is danger of tipping 
it when the craft is otherwise empty. A seat that 
can be slid forward on such occasions is vastly pref¬ 
erable, as it gives the canoeist an opportunity to bal¬ 
ance his canoe. Some canoeists in choppy waters, 
when alone in their boat and it proves unmanageable, 
kneel down in the bottom of the canoe about half¬ 
way between the stern and the center, thus keeping 
the craft well balanced and the load well down. 

River paddling is in a class by itself—especially 
in rapid water which is full of kinks and which you 
have to know and adapt yourself to instantly. If 

68 










Canoeing 

you are the bow man, never embarrass the stern man 
by striking at rocks or other obstructions with your 
paddle. You will do no good whatever, and may 
upset the canoe. The water always takes care of the 
bow, while the stern is your chief concern. Sing out 
“Rock ahead” to the stern man and be sure that he 
sees it, and then leave it to him. His stunt is to 
back paddle the stern away from the obstruction, 
and allow the current to swing the bow clear, as it 
is flowing faster than the canoe is going. The bow 
man’s hard work is in going around bends. The 
river tends to swing the canoe into the main eddies, 
which you must keep clear of, cutting across in the 
still water. If you want hard work going down 
stream, allow your canoe to follow the deepest and 
fiercest channel. The bow man therefore must an¬ 
ticipate the current and get his bow headed out of 
the eddies and into the quiet part of the bends, while 
the stern man puts in his strength and shoves her 
ahead. 


IF THE CANOE UPSETS 

In many Scout camps lessons are given in righting 
an upset canoe in deep water. The boys of course 
in such lessons are in bathing attire and are expert 
swimmers. They are taught how to handle such a 
craft under all sorts of conditions. Four boys, for 
instance, will be in one canoe which at a given signal 
is turned over. It is the job of all of them to turn 

69 


Sports and Games 

the boat back, and although it is full of water it 
will not sink entirely. Then the bulk of the water 
is cleared out of the craft by a process of rocking. 
In other words, the boat is rocked violently back 
and forth so that one-third to one-half of the surplus 
water is splashed overboard. Then one boy climbs 
up across the stern lying flat across the gunwales so 
as not to allow the canoe to tip further. The other 
boys meanwhile hang on but only by their finger tips 
and with their bodies so far down in the water that 
very little weight is exerted upon the craft itself. 
The first boy then scoops out all the water that he 
can with his hands throwing it out ahead of him as he 
works himself down the boat and crouching well 
down within it. Then at a given signal he assists 
first one and then another of his comrades to climb 
aboard. 

It goes without saying that the worst possible way 
to try to climb in a canoe is by seizing the side nearest 
you. This only causes the canoe to turn over and 
over in your direction, and you are lucky if it does 
not swamp you. If you are alone in the canoe when 
it capsizes, get yourself clear of it, then as it comes 
to the surface if keel side up take hold of it by either 
stem or stern but never by the side. If at all near 
to the shore you can swim using mostly leg strokes 
and pushing your canoe to shallow water. If help 
is anywhere within reach, it is better to hang on 
quietly until such help arrives—that is, until you 

70 


Canoeing 

become expert in handling your canoe. If away 
from the shore and by yourself, try to clear the water 
out of your boat first by quickly flipping the boat 
right side up and then by rocking or shoving the 
water out of it. The rocking process is accomplished 
by getting hold of the stern of the canoe and alter¬ 
nately raising and depressing each arm as each holds 
on to the canoe. This serves to rock out enough water 
to give you a few inches of freeboard so that the 
boat will then sustain your own weight if you are 
careful. Now climb aboard over the stern and scoop 
out water with your hands. To “shove” water out 
requires some skill and strength. Again you work 
from the stern, giving the boat quick jerks towards 
you, then away from you, and so back and forth, each 
time precipitating a quantity of the water out over 
the bow or stern. Keep this up until the boat is half 
empty, then climb carefully aboard over the stern 
and scoop out the rest with your hands. 

In rough water it is not advisable to try to bale out 
a canoe after once overturned unless one is a strong 
swimmer and is perfectly sure of himself. If there 
are more than two persons in such a canoe, their 
best plan is to hold on to the canoe and trust to help 
from the outside. The best place to hold, as stated 
before, is at the two ends and it is surprising how 
much even a submerged canoe will sustain if the two 
persons will keep well down in the water and hold 
lightly with their hands and not struggle. If it is 

7i 


Sports and Games 

possible to kick off the shoes and throw off the coat, 
one’s chance of managing the canoe is so much the 
better. 

When approaching rough water or in navigating 
rapids old canoeists often tie a stout piece of cord or 
small rope around the paddle and to some part of 
the canoe. This prevents the paddle from floating 
away and leaving the canoeist still more at the mercy 
of the wind and wave; for no one is more helpless 
even though the canoe is regained than a canoeist 
without a paddle. 

In navigating rough water, both paddlers kneel 
in the body of the boat and manage it in this way, at 
the same time giving the craft stability. A medium 
load makes the canoe ride more steadily than if it 
is empty, but the center of gravity should be low. 

When approaching riffles, shallows or eddies 
which indicate rough water or hidden obstruction, 
the man in the bow should keep on the alert every 
moment and should warn the man in the stern well 
in advance. Sometimes such obstructions require in¬ 
stant decision and a cool head in order to avert dis¬ 
aster. If you are in a swift current that is carrying 
you down toward rapids or rocks, do not try to fight 
it or use up your energy needlessly, and above all 
things don’t try to send the boat over such rocks by 
use of the paddle, as it is liable to snap off in your 
hands and leave you powerless. Guide the canoe 
into the water of such a channel and try to clear such 

72 


Canoeing 

obstruction as closely as possible rather than giving 
it a wide berth. By taking the latter means you are 
liable to strike some other obstruction on the other 
side; whereas the current will probably aid the pad- 
dler to round the dangerous point. 

If a fallen tree lies directly across the current and 
the latter is not too swift, then the best plan to follow 
is to steer the craft so as to pull up alongside of this 
obstruction; but never attempt to paddle across such 
a log unless perfectly sure that there is enough water 
to allow for the draft of the boat. It is the easiest 
thing in the world to break a canoe in two or to bend 
its back seriously by trying to slide across with a 
man in each end of the vessel. Pull up alongside 
as gently as possible, then climb out on the log even 
though you subject yourself to a thorough drenching, 
and lift the canoe sidewise across the obstruction. If 
the.canoe is heavily laden, the alternative is to lighten 
it of some of its contents before trying to raise it out 
of the water, as here again you will be liable to 
strain the craft. 

PORTAGING 

After all, the safest plan when rapids, rocks or 
other obstructions are encountered, is to portage 
around to smoother waters. One may be able to 
navigate nine-tenths of the bad piece of water suc¬ 
cessfully, only to stove a hole at the end which lays 
the canoe up indefinitely. Do not be afraid to be 

73 


Sports and Games 

very cautious at such a piece of bad water. Caution 
does not mean that one is a coward. Your seasoned 
trapper and woodsman never cares what the other 
fellow thinks when he is in doubt about such a jour¬ 
ney. He always plays on the safe side. Sometimes 
such a portage means a wearisome hike of a mile or 
two carrying your duffle as well as the boat. It may 
cost you half a day or more but it is cheaper in the 
long run than to risk losing both the cargo and the 
craft, to say nothing of one’s own life or limb. 

When you see rough water in the distance, and 
the stream is unfamiliar to you, tie up and recon- 
noiter. Send one man ahead to report on the going 
for the next mile or so. If he finds everything all 
clear up to a certain point he can go out on a con¬ 
venient part of the shore and give you a prearranged 
signal to go ahead. The man or men left in the canoe 
then bring the craft on up to the place where the 
scout is in sight. This can be repeated so long as 
squally water prevails. Where there are signs of 
the use of portaging, rest assured that others have de¬ 
cided to take the land route, and do not hesitate to 
follow them around the rapids or other obstructions. 

The proper way to portage is all important. Of 
course, two husky men can take an end of the 
canoe under their arms and carry it down the trail, 
but this is an awkward way to manage the matter. It 
is better for one man to carry the empty canoe upside 
down, leaving all luggage for the other man. If 

74 


Canoeing 

too heavy for one trip, better make two lots of it and 
two trips. 

The time-honored method by which the Hudson 
Bay trappers used to carry their canoes is to lash the 
paddles to the middle of the canoe and the forward 
thwart braces, the blades of the paddles resting on 
the middle thwart. If the canoe is turned over, these 
paddles form a brace for the canoe and rest with their 
flat side on the shoulders, allowing the head to go 
between the paddles and inside the canoe. By pro¬ 
tecting the shoulders further with heavy coats or 
sweaters, which need not be worn but which can be 
bunched under the canoe paddles, one can carry the 
ordinary sixty-pound canoe for a long distance with¬ 
out undue fatigue, that is, if the going is moderately 
easy. 

It is not wise if one anticipates rough water to 
carry a heavy outfit in the canoe. The portaging 
will be twice as wearisome and twice as difficult 
if there is a large amount of stuff to pack. Further¬ 
more, a canoe heavily loaded becomes logy and un¬ 
manageable in a choppy sea, while a canoe moder¬ 
ately loaded will withstand a remarkable amount of 
rough going if handled by two alert resourceful 
paddlers. 

CANOEING RACING 

The canoe as a racing machine has not been de¬ 
veloped to any high degree of efficiency. It is a 

75 


Sports and Games 

popular feature in any aquatic carnival or other 
series of sports, which so often pertains to the close 
of the season at the summer resort or watering place. 
It is seldom regarded seriously, however, but more 
as a lark on the part of both participants and spec¬ 
tators. No great amount of practice is indulged in 
beforehand, but instead the participants trust to 
brawn and luck. 

Nevertheless there are many fine points about the 
use of the paddle and team-work which, if properly 
developed, could bring the canoe forward as a seri¬ 
ous contender among racing craft. For example, 
if it is a two-man race, the two paddlers can gain 
both power and direction by abandoning their stem 
and stern positions and kneeling down in the body 
of the canoe. The man in front puts his shoulders 
and back into an effort to propel the canoe forward 
without regard to direction. He leaves the latter 
point to his team mate, who has a somewhat heavier 
paddle as well as being a heavier man. The stern 
paddler is the one who trims the course of a vessel 
by the slight twist of the paddle at each end of the 
stroke. His ideal position is just forward of the 
rear cross brace. Here he keeps his paddle on the 
opposite side from that of his team mate and can 
keep the canoe headed in the given direction without 
having to shift. 

If the wind or the current tries to sheer the craft 
away from its straight course, the helmsman can 

7 6 


Canoeing 

shift a bit further forward and alternate the angle 
of his paddle until he feels the balance of the canoe 
beneath him, which indicates that he has reached 
about the right position and stroke. The shift of the 
paddle should be accomplished with as little effort 
as possible, because too much of a twist to the pad¬ 
dle tends to retard the speed. 

We have seen more than one race lost to the 
weaker team because of the fact that the steersman 
could not hold a straight course. A canoe by nature 
veers rapidly and unless its course is corrected at 
the end of each stroke it will within a dozen yards 
sometimes swing almost at right angles to its true 
course. The steersman should and must keep his 
eye on the goal itself and constantly endeavor to keep 
the prow headed in that direction without interfer¬ 
ing with his partner’s efforts unnecessarily. 

CANOE SAILING 

Most of us are so constituted that we do not like 
to work any more than necessary. Paddling a canoe 
is hard work as the man who finally rigs up a leg-o’- 
mutton sail finds out. For a canoeing cruise a light 
sail is a godsend. One sits comfortably in the stern 
of the vessel watching his craft skim along like a 
bird over the waters which before were painfully 
navigated. 

However, oanoe sailing is for the adept—the one 
who has already mastered the intricacies of canoe 

77 


Sports and Games 

paddling. Your sailing canoe is like a high-spirited 
steed that is liable to take the bit between his teeth 
at any time and upset you, if you are not up to his 
tricks. 

There are many types of sails, but we shall describe 
here only one or two of the simple types which can 
be adopted for use in any canoe. If you are going 
away on a camping trip by water, many miles of pad¬ 
dling may be saved if you will provide yourself with 
a leg-o’-mutton sail about 8 feet up the mast by 9 
feet along the boom. Make this of good stout Amer¬ 
ican drilling hemmed to prevent ripping and pro¬ 
vided with grommets about eight or ten inches apart. 
The mast and boom can be carried along also, or 
can be cut from saplings in the woods if you are 
passing through wooded country, but it saves trouble 
to provide these light timbers and wrap the canvas 
around them so that no time is lost in stepping the 
sail. The mast is stepped with a cross brace which 
is set well forward in the craft and can be so 
screwed to the side ribs as to be taken off easily and 
without any injury to the craft itself. The foot step 
can be screwed in tightly below and in such a way 
as to give the mast a slightly rakish tilt backwards. 
There is, of course, no jib but only this single tri¬ 
angular sail, which sweeps well out from the side 
of the canoe and is managed by the man who sits 
in the stern and who can steer, if he so desires, with 
a light paddle or other improvised rudder. A sail 

78 


Canoeing 

rigged up in this fashion is very fast and even in a 
light breeze will carry a light craft over the water at 
an amazing rate, but for this very reason one has to 
watch his currents; a hatful of wind too much and 
over you go. Some owners try to counterbalance 
the heavy pull on one side of their canoe by rigging 
up a counter board which extends out and across 
the thwarts in the opposite direction, and upon 
which the venturesome canoeist will sometimes 
sprawl in an endeavor to keep the craft upright. 
This is really canoe gymnastics rather than true 
canoe sailing. 

In order to make your canoe answer its helm and 
not merely drift across the water in front of every 
wind that blows, you should have lee-boards. For 
canoe voyaging, these can be made to fold up and 
thus take little space on board. If one has a work 
bench and handy tools, such lee-boards are easily 
constructed at home. Take two pieces of clear 
spruce and whittle out two blades about the size and 
shape of paddle blades with square stocks about 3x1 
inches. Provide a pair of three-inch hinges, prefer¬ 
ably of brass, as these do not rust, and get a length 
of spruce timber 3x1 inches and a foot longer than 
your canoe is wide. Mark on this piece the direc¬ 
tions exactly where the shanks of the lee-boards will 
come on the outside and swing up against the gun¬ 
wale. Then screw all the hinges facing inwards so 
that the two lee-boards will fold toward each other. 

79 


Sports and Games 

When dropped down over the outside edge of the 
boat the lee-board should not exceed 2 feet in length 
and should be tapered off to a thin edge somewhat 
like a racing paddle. When the boards are fastened 
by the hinges to the cross pieces they should stand 
upright a little away from right angles—that is away 
from the side of the canoe. Next set two heavy brass 
hooks into your cross rail, and in such a fashion that 
the eye of the hook when placed in the back of the 
paddle will hold the lee-board upright and firm. 
This keeps it from collapsing when in use. 

The lee-board is used by being set straddle across 
the canoe with one board resting in the water on each 
side. The cross rail is locked so that it remains firm 
a little forward of midship and when thus set down 
into the water it acts much as a center-board would 
act in giving the craft leverage in the water. In 
other words, when you turn your rudder and bring 
your sail around against the wind, the sharp blades 
of the lee-board not only prevent the canoe from 
skimming across the surface of the water but also 
enables you to steer in any desired direction. 

Some canoes are rigged up with two sails, one 
being stepped in the bow of the canoe and the other 
in the stern. The forward sail is usually much 
larger than the other—possibly three or four times 
as large. The small sail is used more to balance the 
craft and aid in steering. Where a great deal of 
sail is carried it has been found advisable to deck 

80 



Canoeing 

the canoe. There are two methods of doing this, 
the most common being a wooden deck which is 
staunch and reliable. This kind of a canoe, how¬ 
ever, is too heavy to paddle and boys do not find 
much sport in it. The other variety, the canvas-cov¬ 
ered canoe, is much the lighter and when equipped 
with two sails, a main sail and jigger, they surely 
fly under favorable conditions. 

Says one canoeist: “As to rigs for canoes, I have 

% 

tried them all; leg-o’-mutton, bat wing, lateen and 
Canadian Club or battened leg-o’-mutton; and have 
settled on the latter for all my later canoes. Leg-o’- 
mutton is a slow sail, because of its bad leach, and 
its spars are so long as to be unstowable in a canoe 
with six-foot cockpit. Bat wing is too complicated 
a sail for most men to make, and easily gets out of 
gear. Lateen has not only too long spars, but is un- 
reefable, and is a dangerous sail before the wind in 
a heavy blow. For a twelve-foot canoe, a larger 
sail can be carried, but you will have to reef it most 
of the time. A single set of reef points in mizzen 
and mainsail gives you canvas for a heavy blow, 
while reefing her down to her battens will give you 
a rag that you can navigate a gale in.” 

Because of its weight, variety of uses and general 
adaptability, the canoe will always be popular. It 
is the ideal companion for the growing boy who is 
resourceful and knows how to swim. Whether for 
idling on a sunlit lake, or as a means of conveyance 

81 


Sports and Games 

on a camping trip, or as a racing craft flying full 
sail across some friendly bay, your canoe seems a 
thing of life. Viewed from afar it is a thing of 
beauty, as much a part of nature as the white-winged 
sea-gull darting above it. 




82 


SAIL BOATS 


\ MONG the oldest of pastimes of which we have 
^ any record is that of sailing and boat handling— 
although it was probably first learned through neces¬ 
sity. Mankind began very early in the dawn of civ¬ 
ilization to propel and guide his craft by means of 
sails and rudders across the rivers and seas. Even 
now among types of primitive savages still found in 
the South Sea Islands the first evidences of seaman¬ 
ship may be found along the lines of war and pleas¬ 
ure canoes. 

For the outing to-day, where there is a sizable 
expanse of water, a sail-boat is almost indispensable. 
The ability to handle one—even if only a sailing 
canoe or skiff—trebles the joy of such an excursion. 

THE SMALL OPEN SAILING BOAT 

A small boat which can be sailed single-handed 
without difficulty, and which is easy to row—so that, 
if the wind fails, one can put out the oars and pull 
her along at a fair rate of speed—is the best sort of 
craft on which the novice can pass his early appren¬ 
ticeship. That he can quickly lower his sail if he 
finds himself in a difficulty, and take to his oars, 

83 




Sports and Games 

considerably lessens the risk consequent on his in¬ 
experience. 

We will first confine ourselves to the description of 
open boats only, of various sorts, for a boat so small 
that she can be easily rowed should not be decked in, 
nor be half-decked. A partly-decked boat—that is, 
one decked in the bow and stern, and having a nar¬ 
row deck with coamings on either side—is safer than 
an open boat, as she can heel over to a much greater 
angle without shipping water than would be possible 
were she entirely open. But when a small boat is 
thus decked or half-decked, her owner is apt to 
imagine that he is in possession, not of a boat, but 
of a small yacht, and is likely to over-spar her, over¬ 
ballast her, and over-canvas her, and, consequently, 
to over-sail her. The decked boat is only to be rec¬ 
ommended when the craft is big enough to be used 
entirely under sail, with a cabin or cuddy under the 
decking forward. The above remarks, of course, 
do not apply to boats intended for racing. These, 
however small, must, as a rule, be heavily ballasted, 
and may be partly decked. 

Wooden boats are generally constructed in three 
ways: (1) Clinker, or lap-streak; (2) carvel or 
smooth skin; and (3) diagonal. Small boats are 
generally clinker-built. In this type the planks over¬ 
lap each other, whereas a carvel-boat has very light 
frame-work to support the planking. The carvel- 
built boat is put together much in the same way as 

84 


Sail Boats 


a big vessel—that is, she has a framework of solid 
timbers to which the planking is fastened. 

The carvel-built boat has the following advan¬ 
tages over the clinker-built boat: She has a heavier 
frame, will last longer, and is more easily repaired; 
thus, if a portion of her planking has been damaged, 
it can be easily replaced, whereas it is difficult to 
patch the planking of a clinker-built boat. 

On the other hand, the clinker-built is much 
cheaper than the carvel-built. She is also lighter— 
an important consideration when a boat is intended 
for rowing and for hauling up on a beach. For this 
reason the clinker-built boat is also more buoyant 
and lively in a seaway. 

A diagonal built boat is much heavier in construc¬ 
tion, and amateur boat builders would do well to 
avoid it. In this form of construction two layers of 
planking are used from keel to gunwale, the first 
running upward and forward at an angle of about 
forty-five degrees; and the second layer running in 
the opposite direction. A waterproof material may 
be laid between the planking, making an exceedingly 
durable boat. Sometimes the outer layer over the 
first diagonal planking is carvel-built. 

The wood most in favor is oak for the frame, and 
cedar, cypress or white pine for the planking. Fir 
and spruce are sometimes used. For pleasure boats 
mahogany is a favorite wood. 

The ballast of a small boat, more especially if she 

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has to be frequently drawn up on a beach, should be 
so arranged that it can be readily removed. Iron 
or lead blocks, of half a hundred-weight each, with 
handles to them, are a very convenient form of bal¬ 
last for a small boat. Battens should be fastened to 
the bottom of the boat to keep the ballast in its place; 
otherwise, when the boat heels over in a squall, the 
ballast may fall to leeward, and so cause a capsize. 
As metal ballast is heavier than any other, it can be 
stowed low, more especially if it is molded to fit 
into the flooring; and consequently the boat ballasted 
with it will be stiffer under canvas. Such ballast 
also takes up much less room than a more bulky 
material, such as stones or sand, though sand bags 
weighing 40 or 50 pounds each are often used in 
small boats. 

The risks of sailing are much reduced for the 
novice if his craft is unsinkable. If a boat will float 
though full of water, her owner, in the event of a 
capsize, can hold on to her side until someone comes 
to his rescue; and in most cases his craft also will be 
recovered undamaged, whereas a boat of higher 
specific gravity, sinking in deep water, will in all 
probability be lost. If lead or iron ballast be em¬ 
ployed, the boat should be rendered unsinkable by 
making water-tight compartments, which convert 
her into a lifeboat. One compartment in the bows 
and another in the stern will suffice, and if made to 
fit closely they occupy little room. 

86 


Sail Boats 


Center-board. The most effective method of pre¬ 
venting the lee-way of a small boat is to provide her 
with a center-board. This is generally constructed 
of iron, but if lightness is an important consideration, 
it might better be of wood. On the other hand, the 
iron center-board acts as ballast, and, being so deeply 
immersed, produces a far greater effect in stiffening 
the boat than would a greater weight of iron stowed 
inside of the hull. The center-board is generally of 
triangular shape. When hauled up it is contained 
in a water-tight trunk, or case, in the body of the 
boat. It works on a pivot at its fore end, and when 
lowered passes through the centre of the keel. If 
the boat strikes on a shoal, the center-board is forced 
up into the trunk, and warns the helmsman that it 
is time to go about or make for deeper water. If the 
center-board is not jammed, it rarely bends or breaks 
when the boat runs on shore; but this does occasion¬ 
ally occur. It is better to employ an iron handle than 
a chain for hauling up the center-board. The handle 
has a joint, so that it can be doubled back and laid 
snugly along the top of the trunk when the center- 
board is up. The advantage of the handle is that 
by forcing it down one can reelase the center-board 
if the latter be jammed, as not infrequently happens, 
by pebbles or bits of wood or weed that have found 
their way into the trunk. 

The center-board trunk occupies a good deal of 
space in the boat, and is often found to be much in 

8 ? 


Sports and Games 

the way. To obviate this, a folding center-board 
has been invented for use on small boats, which re¬ 
quires little space. This consists of three or more 
plates of iron, working at one end on a pivot in 
the keel, and made so as to open out and close like 
a fan. The plates are hauled up or lowered by a 
rod working in a tube which passes through the keel 
into the boat. When hoisted, the plates fold up and 
lie snugly alongside each other in a chamber cut into 
the middle of the keel. 

Lee-boards. The simplest method of supplying a 
boat having no deep keel or center-board with the 
means of offering lateral resistance to the water, and 
so checking leeway, is to fit her with lee-boards. 
These have several advantages over center-boards; 
they do not jam, break off, or strain the boat when 
one runs aground, but always come up at once on 
touching the bottom. Some shallow waters are in 
summer overgrown with weeds, through which a 
center-board craft could never force her way; on 
the other hand, a lee-board can always be pulled up 
without difficulty when it gets foul, and be quickly 
cleared of the weeds. 

If expense is a consideration, the novice can not 
do better than fit his first small boat with lee-boards. 
We will suppose that he has purchased a second¬ 
hand craft for a comparatively few dollars. To fit 
a center-board into her would be a costly bit of work, 
only to be undertaken by a skilled boat-builder. But 

88 


Sail Boats 


any boy who has even a very small experience in the 
use of carpenter’s tools can construct a lee-board 
and fit it to his boat. 

In the chapter on Canoeing, we have given definite 
instructions for constructing small lee-boards, which 
will serve for a craft as light as a canoe. Such lee- 
boards can, of course, be constructed a little bit 
heavier and to set deeper in the water for almost 
any size boat. Many skilled boatmen have a preju¬ 
dice to their use, but it is undeniable that in an emer¬ 
gency the lee-board answers a definite pupwose. Lee- 
boards can be made to hinge to cross pieces and open 
up at right angles well off the side of the boat. They 
can be so fastened by eye-screws as to be perfectly 
rigid while in the water, and folded into small space 
when not in use. 

TYPES OF SAILING BOATS AND RIGGING 

Fashions in sailing craft differ widely, and what 
is well-known in one section of the country may be 
practically unknown in another. There are a dozen 
different types of sailing vessels in use along the At¬ 
lantic coast from Maine to Florida, each of which 
has its own special devotees; for example, on Long 
Island Sound the small jib and mainsail boat or 
sloop is most popular. “Down in Maine,” where 
there are deep land-locked bays, a type of yawl is, 
in high favor. A little further south we find boats 
called “sneak boxes” which are lozenge-shape in hull. 

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Sports and Games 

In and about Cape Cod waters, the great favorite 
is the cat boat which is described elsewhere. The 
cat boat is found in widely scattered waters and for 
an all-around vessel is hard to beat. 

Of course, there are many types of small sailing 
craft which strictly speaking are not sail boats at 
all. Almost any ingenious boy can step a mast and 
rig a sail on a boat, provided the boat can be man¬ 
aged at all for such purposes. Center-boards are 
improvised or lee-boards are constructed, and even 
canoes are pressed into service for sailing. You will 
find sails attached to life boats, launches, jolly boats, 
whale boats, cutters, dories, gigs, punts, bateaux, 
skiffs, yawls, and many another. While these widely 
differing types of row-boats can be propelled by 
sails, the patterns of the sails themselves have a good 
deal to do with their sea-going qualities. 

For pleasure boats the following are the best 
known types: cat rig, sprit-sail rig, sloop rig, 
schooner rig, yawl rig, leg-of-mutton rig, balance 
lug, sliding gunter, and lateen sails. 

Cat Rig. This will be described later more in 
detail in connection with the cat boat itself. In this 
type the mast is stepped close-up in the bows of the 
boat and has only a head stay to hold it. The mast 
is often as tall as the boat is long and carries one 
large sail secured by mast hoops and held out at 
the top with a gaff and at the bottom with a boom. 
This sail lends itself to one-man control. He can 

9 ° 


Sail Boats 

sit at the tiller and trim the sail as well as steer the 
boat. 

Sprit-sail Rig . A very handy type of rig for small 
boats which has certain advantages in the way of 
hoisting sail, but is not particularly easy in setting 
is the sprit-sail. The sprit itself is a sliding pole set 
diagonally to the mast and so placed as to take all 
the sag out of the sail. It is supported on the mast 
by means of a strap called a “becket” or “snotter.” 
The “snotter” is a loop of short rope which is fast¬ 
ened around the mast and allows the free turning 
and sliding of the sprit itself. One advantage of 
the sprit-sail is that it can readily be rolled up on 
the sprit alongside of the mast. 

Sloop Rig. One of the handsomest of all types 
of sailing vessels is the sloop, and this is probably 
used more often by school boys for making small 
models than any other type. In small boats, for 
actual sailing purposes there are two sails, the main¬ 
sail and the jib. The mast must therefore be stepped 
far enough back to allow for the play of the jib. 
From one-quarter to one-third of the distance back 
from the bows is about, the proper distance. The 
jib is set from a jib-stay. It slides freely up and 
down the stay on rings or hanks. This jib-stay runs 
from the mast head to the bow and thence to a bow¬ 
sprit which projects beyond the bow a few feet. The 
mainsail is very much of the same shape as that in 
use for the cat-boat, with a gaff at the top and a boom 

9J 


Sports and Games 

at the bottom. The addition of the jib makes this 
type of craft much more manageable and better 
balanced than the single-sail boat. The sloop rig, 
however, is not well adapted for handling alone, as 
the two sails require two sheets (as the rope by which 
they are trimmed is called) to be tended. We will 
discuss this popular boat later. 

Schooner Rig. This type of rig is adapted to 
larger boats such as fishing and commercial craft 
and is seldom used on small boats. It requires two 
masts and a bowsprit for the jib. The mainsail is 
provided with a boom and gaff similar to the cat 
boat and is handled in the same way. The forward 
mast carries the foresail and the jib. The foresail 
has a gaff and boom, also, although occasionally 
the boom is dispensed with, making what is called 
a loose-fitted sail. 

Leg-of-Mutton Rig. A simple type of sail which 
can be used to advantage with a boat with sloop or 
cat rig is the leg-of-mutton. This is triangular in 
shape with one point extending upward so that it 
can be raised and lowered on the mast by a single 
halyard. The lower edge is attached to the boom 
which is controlled by the sheet. It can be raised 
(or “set” as it is called) and lowered quickly. 

Balance-Lug. A type of rig which is much more 
common in European than it is in American waters, 
is the balance lug. The sail comprising this rig is 
four-sided and is suspended from a yard which in 

92 


Sail Boats 


turn is hung from the mast about one-third of the 
way from the forward end of the yard. This hangs 
obliquely and allows a small portion of the sail to 
extend in front of the mast. The boom is only 
slightly if any longer than the yard. Sometimes, in 
small boats, the boom is dispensed with altogether 
and the sheet is attached to the lower, after corner, 
which is called the clew, but this is not generally 
so satisfactory as having it stretched along a boom. 
In some types of the balance lug sail, there are two 
masts of equal height set far enough apart to allow 
for two standing lug sails. In the standing lug the 
sail does not have to be lowered, or dipped at each 
tack to pass the yard around the mast. This type 
of boat has not been as popular in American waters 
as elsewhere, as it is somewhat clumsy and hard to 
handle when coming about, and because it does not 
behave as well when setting a sail. 

Sliding Gunter. Another rig employing the yard 
is the sliding gunter. In this type the sail is secured 
to the yard, as is the lug, which in turn slides up 
and down the mast by means of rings or hoops. A 
boat thus rigged usually carries two masts and sails 
of about the same size. 

Lateen Sails. In foreign waters, chiefly in the 
Mediterranean, lateen sails are popular for medium- 
size boats. They can be best described by saying 
that they resemble the balance lug at the top in being 
suspended across the mast by means of a yard. The 

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sail itself, however, is triangular instead of square, 
and the yard is extremely long and limber. It may 
or may not have a boom at the foot. Many racing 
canoes in our own waters are so rigged. 

THE BEST RIGS FOR THE BEGINNER 

The beginner would do well to start in with the 
simpler types of sail. The single-sail boat, rigged 
with a sprit-sail or a leg-of-mutton sail without a 
boom, is easily handled and is much safer than it 
looks. When the sheet is let go in a squall it blows 
out before the wind like a flag, and cannot capsize 
the boat. This is not the case with a sail stretched 
out on a boom, which always offers some resistance 
to the wind, even when the sheet is let go. With 
a sail on a boom, a jibe in a strong wind may be a 
risky proceeding. On the other hand, a boat cannot 
sail her best without a boom, as the sail does not set 
as well, and when running before the wind it forms 
a bag, and does not hold so much wind as it would 
if its foot were extended on a boom. It is only when 
the boat is on a wind that the boomless sail can be 
got to stand flat, and then only if the sheet is led 
aft and made fast to a place exactly in the line of the 
foot of the sail. 

The simplest rig of all for a boat is the cat rig. 
The advantage of this rig is that there is only one 
sail to manage, but to the skipper who has had but 
little experience, when it breezes up, this simplicity 

94 


Sail Boats 


is outweighed somewhat by the fact that such a sail 
makes a boat hard on her helm and it is sometimes 
hard to bring her about. A boat is much easier to 
manoeuvre if she has a jib. The jib creates that nice 
balance which is the delight of every expert sailor’s 
heart. 

One of the fastest rigs is the jib and mainsail. The 
kind of sail which best suits any special type of boat 
can only be figured out to a nicety by experiment. 
Your flat, square-ended boat will probably do as 
well with a single sail as with anything else. As 
you approach the racing craft, however, the cat rig 
may not be satisfactory. The skipper demands speed 
and effectiveness which the single sail cannot effect. 
In American waters our skippers usually follow any 
one of half a dozen generally accepted types of rig. 

One should always remember that the wind pres¬ 
sure is not so great right on the water’s surface as it is 
a few feet above it. This is the reason why the small 
boat sail will often have her sail limp in a light 
breeze while the big boat alongside of it goes along 
with the sails well filled out. Some small boats try 
to obtain this advantage by excessively high rigging 
and long masts. This is not advised, however, for 
the beginner, where seas are uncertain and winds 
are apt to come in puffs or gusts. 

The leg-of-mutton sail with small jib is in some 
respects the safest of all rigs for the small open 
boat, and it is very easy to handle. The weight of 

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canvas is mostly in the body of the boat, and there 
is very little weight aloft. The sail is laced to the 
mast, which need be but a light spar, as it has no 
heavy gaff or yard to support, and small strain comes 
on any part of it. One halyard hoists the sail if it 
is not laced to the mast. 

THE CAT-BOAT 

The cat-boat has an almost flat floor. It has a 
great beam in proportion to its length, the former 
being in some boats more than half the latter. It 
is one of the handiest of boats, is good to windward 
in sheltered waters, but in rough seas a boat with 
deeper draft is much more comfortable and will not 
slide off to leeward as fast. 

The cat-boat can be handled by one person very 
readily if he is skilled in sailing a boat of any sort. 
With one hand on the tiller and the other in reach 
of the rope controlling the boom (the main sheet, 
it is called) he is master of all he surveys. In ordi¬ 
nary weather one can thus sail for hours at a time in 
the laziest and most comfortable fashion. The for¬ 
ward end of the boat lends itself well for decking 
over, so that necessary supplies and even cooking 
equipment can be carried in a snug cabin there, if 
necessary. Then, too, the floor space is roomy. The 
deck plan bears some resemblance to a flat-iron. 

The American cat-boat is generally provided with 
a wooden center-board; in England an iron center- 

96 


Sail Boats 


board is preferred. The mast is stepped in the bow, 
and the one sail generally has a gaff and boom. The 
sail is held to the mast either by lacing or by mast 
hoops and is hoisted by two halyards, one leading 
from the after end of the gaff, called the peak, 
through a block on the mast and to the deck, where 
it is cleated, the other leading from the jaws of the 
gaff, called the throat, through another block aloft, 
and to the deck. In setting the sail, hoist both throat 
and peak together until it is nearly set, then hold the 
peak and hoist the throat of the sail well up. Then 
go back and set up the peak hard. The boom should 
always be provided with a topping lift, for unless 
the boom is topped up it will fall into the water when 
the sail is lowered, and the outer end will dip into 
it when the boat is running before the wind. 

Though the cat-boat is usually flat-bodied, her 
excessive beam gives her great stability, and in the 
smaller sizes she can be sailed without any ballast; 
but, as has already been explained, boats of this class, 
though stiff up to a particular point, capsize as soon 
as they have heeled beyond a certain angle, and must 
be sailed with greater care than the deep-keel boats. 
Being so flat-floored she is uncomfortable in rough 
water, pounding heavily into the seas and straining 
herself. Moreover, the weight of the mast, situated 
as it is so far forward, tends to drive the bow into 
the seas and thus make a wet boat in the wind. The 
cat-boat also is liable to drive her nose under and 

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go down by the head when running before a strong 
squall. The great sail and the length of the boom 
also make the boat roll when running before the 
wind; she is then apt to steer very wildly, and is 
more liable to broach to, than a boat provided with 
a jib. 

A SAILING DORY 

In New England, where people sail a good deal 
out on the open sea and the harbors themselves are 
subject to heavy swells or rough water, there has 
been developed a different type of boat from the 
cat-boat. What has been evolved is a sea-going boat 
of good rough water qualities which will ride the 
seas well and stand up in fairly heavy weather—the 
sailing dory. 

This boat answers the demand for a craft which 
is not easily swamped because of her flaring bow and 
side constructions. It is used for fishing, and by 
the New England fisherman, for hauling fish trawls 
and for hand fishing. In the hands of those who 
know how to manage them they are the most sea¬ 
worthy small boats in existence. But they are quick 
in motion, heel easily unless the weight is kept amid- 
ship, and are all on top of the water, so they are 
hard to row in a head wind when they are light. In 
the smaller sizes, modified to meet the needs of a 
sailing craft, it is a good boat for the boy to learn 
to sail in, and to take short cruises along the shore. 

98 


Sail Boats 


It will not sink and should it fill and capsize, it can 
be righted and bailed out easily. 

THE KNOCKABOUT 

Another type of small sailing boat which has be¬ 
come widely popular is the knockabout. It is 
evolved from the sloop-rigged yacht, which in 
earlier days always carried a long bowsprit project¬ 
ing several feet beyond a long and sharp bow. To¬ 
gether they tended to make the craft cranky when 
running before the wind or where quick manoeuv¬ 
ring was essential either in squally weather or a 
race. Noting this defect, some weather-wise tar 
argued, Why have a bowsprit at all? Why not make 
it a part of the hull itself? Hence came the knock¬ 
about, a sturdy but quick racing boat, with a jib set 
entirely inboard, and a mainsail of modern lines 
with gaff cocked well up, and the center of gravity 
kept low. These boats range in size from about 20 
feet length by 7 feet beam, to the 30-footers or more. 
But the smaller sizes are preferred for amateur 
racing. 


THE SAILING SKIFF 

Another boat, which is somewhat similar to the 
cat-boat, is the sailing skiff which is rigged with jib 
and mainsail. An ordinary oyster skiff can be easily 
converted into such a craft with very little trouble. 
The average skiff measures about 20 feet by 6y 2 feet 

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on beam. A sailing skiff should have a center-board 
and is commonly rigged with a large sprit sail and 
removable mast. The boat is decked fore and aft 
with light washboards. The rudder is hung on the 
stern and is operated by a tiller working underneath 
the main sheet traveler. The proper size of mainsail 
for a boat of this size is about 13 feet on hoist and 
IS feet on boom, 9 feet 7 inches gaff, and 22 feet 4 
inches leach. As previously mentioned, the boat is 
also supplied with a jib which should be about 14 
feet 6 inches hoist, 12 feet on the luff, and 6 feet 6 
inches foot. For racing purposes a spinnaker may 
also be provided with the pole measuring 10 feet 
6 inches. 

THE CANOE YAWL RIG 

The main and mizzen is a favorite rig for canoes 
and small boats, and is also a very handy one. Some¬ 
times the boomkin for the mizzen is fastened on to 
the rudder head and so moves with it. The result is 
that in tacking, when the helm is put down, the miz¬ 
zen is forced to windward and helps the boat around. 
Th is plan, which is adopted on some sailing-barges, 
will certainly prevent a clumsy boat from missing 
stays; but the mizzen thus gets aback every time the 
boat goes about and must stop her way to some ex¬ 
tent. Moreover, with the mizzen so arranged the 
helmsman dares not leave his tiller for a moment, 
for if he does, the wind pressing on the mizzen forces 

ioo 


Sail Boats 


the rudder down, and the boat falls off before the 
wind instead of luffing up into it, as all open sailing- 
boats should do when left to themselves. 

One type of main and mizzen rigged boat has 
wooden battens in her two lugs, after the fashion of 
a Chinese junk. With the assistance of battens a 
sail attains the maximum of flatness. The battens 
do not materially increase the weight of the sail, 
as they are made of light deal. They are passed 
through the reef bands of the sail. This rig is pecu¬ 
liarly adapted for single-handed sailing; for a very 
large sail can be carried with safety if it be provided 
with battens, as reeffing becomes an exceedingly 
simple and almost instantaneous process. To take 
in a reef, the halyard is slacked off a sufficient length 
to allow a pull on a line, which is rove through thim¬ 
bles fastened at both ends of the batten and boom; 
then draw the boom and lower batten close together, 
and the reef is down, for the reef points need not be 
tied. The other reefs can be taken down in the same 
way. In squally weather reefs can be taken in and 
shaken out very quickly if necessary. Of course, 
if one has time to do so, one will tie the reef-points, 
as the reef will then be snugger. 

THE SLOOP 

The sloop rig is well adapted for seawork, but is 
not handy for single-handed sailing if the sailor be 
a novice, for the tending of the jib-sheets when tack- 

IOI 


Sports and Games 

ing gives the helmsman more work than he may care 
for on a windy day. The sloop is rigged much like 
an English cutter; its mainsail, like the cutter’s, has 
a boom and gaff and is hoisted by two halyards, the 
throat and peak halyards; but whereas the cutter 
has a forestay fixed to the stem, carries two head- 
sails, a jib and staysail or foresail, and has a bow¬ 
sprit, the sloop has but one large jib and a fixed bow¬ 
sprit to the end of which the forestay is carried. If 
the sloop is a knockabout the stay is carried to the 
stem head. A topsail can be carried on a sloop as on 
a cutter, and a spinnaker can be used for running 
before the wind. The running and standing rig¬ 
ging of a sloop is practically the same as that of a 
cutter. In the United States the term, sloop rig, is 
used almost entirely for a single-masted vessel, 
whether she carries a single or double head rig. 

If the mainsail of a small boat—whether she be 
cat-boat, or sloop—have a boom, it is usual to have 
the foot of the sail laced to the boom instead of hav¬ 
ing it secured at the two extremities only, as is often 
the case with the cutter’s mainsail. A sail thus laced 
undoubtedly stands flatter, and as the lacing dis¬ 
tributes the strain along the boom, that spar need not 
be so stout and heavy as it would have to be with 
a sail that was not laced. 

Many different types of open sailing boats are 
provided with jibs and mizzens, but for river and 
smooth water sailing the single-handed sailor had 

102 


Sail Boats 


best confine himself to one sail; it is difficult to see 
what advantage he can gain by having more, except 
to get better balance. The boat with the single sail 
is not only the handiest, but it is the fastest, that 
is, given a certain area of canvas, that canvas is far 
more effective if it be all put into one sail than if 
it be divided into several sails, especially when a 
boat is on a wind. It is only because large sails are 
difficult to handle that seagoing vessels have so 
many sails—an objection that does not apply to 
small boats. 

But when a boat is intended for cruising on rough 
waters it is inadvisable to fit her with one big sail, 
which also involves a tall mast. When tumbling 
about in a seaway in a strong breeze the less top 
hamper the better, so that a smaller mainsail and 
a jib constitute the best rig. When running or sail¬ 
ing with the wind abeam, a boat is easier to steer 
if she has a jib; a boat with one sail is apt to miss 
stays if the sea is rough, but with the assistance of a 
jib her head can always be paid off. 

On some small craft, which, like the sloop, carry 
one head-sail only, the foot of the jib is laced to 
a small boom, which makes the sail stand much 
flatter. 

SEAMANSHIP 

After the amateur sailor has become familiar with 
the various types of sailing craft, he should learn 

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how the principal manoeuvres connected with the 
sailing of the boat are executed. Practice alone will 
enable the amateur sailor to decide promptly what 
course of action he should take in any set of con¬ 
ditions that may arise, and to perform the required 
operations smartly and without hesitation. For that 
“he who hesitates is lost” is an adage that has but 
too often been proved true at sea. He must get so 
that he knows what to do instinctively. The sailor 
must be able to put his hands upon any rope on 
board, in a moment, in the darkest night; and to reef, 
tie, or untie any knot, as well with his eyes shut as 
open. But the novice must not be discouraged if he 
makes mistakes at first. 

Before explaining how the different manoeuvres 
are performed on a yacht, we will describe how the 
sails are hoisted, lowered, and reefed. 

The Mainsail, when stowed in harbor, is rolled 
up neatly, the middle of the leach having been first 
hauled forward and laid along the boom. When 
the sail is furled, its folds are tied together by short 
lengths of rope, or canvas strips, called stops or gas¬ 
kets. The sail is then covered with painted or water¬ 
proofed canvas, which is laced underneath the boom; 
but this cover should never be put on unless the sail 
is thoroughly dry, else mildew will soon make its 
appearance. The boom, when the sail is furled, 
rests on a wooden crutch. 

To set the mainsail. Remove the sail-cover; hook 

104 


Sail Boats 


on the peak halyards; slack off the main-sheet so as 
to allow the boom to be topped up a few feet with 
the topping-lift. Then get the main-sheet taut again, 
and belay it; cast off the stops. The sail is now ready 
for hoisting. To get it up, haul on both throat and 
peak halyards until the throat is as high as it will go 
and the luff of the sail is drawn taut; but while do¬ 
ing this do not let the peak of the sail get higher 
than the throat, for if the peak be hoisted too fast the 
throat will travel up the mast with difficulty, and 
cannot be got taut. Take care also that the gaff 
passes between the two topping-lifts, or on the right 
side, that is the windward side, or what will be the 
windward side of the single topping-lift, if there 
be but one topping-lift, as is usual on small cutters. 
The throat being well up, belay the throat halyards; 
then haul away on the peak halyards until the peak 
is well up—that is, until the sail begins to wrinkle 
at the throat. 

If the clew of the sail has not been hauled out 
taut along the boom before the sail is hoisted, this 
should be done before the peak is right up. 

When the sail is up, stow away in a locker, or 
other place set apart for the purpose, the boom- 
crutch, sail covers and rope-ends; for nothing is 
more unseamanlike than to leave lying about on 
deck gear which is not required for immediate use. 
‘‘Where the dickens have those other two rope-ends 
got to?” “I don’t know, Ted. They must have been 

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washed overboard when we shipped that sea/’ is 
the sort of conversation over the stowing of a sail 
after a cruise, that betokens a slovenly crew. 

Having belayed the halyards, coil them neatly 
from left to right, “with the sun,” and then capsize 
them—that is, turn the coils over, so that the last 
coil is on the top, as the halyards, if let go in a 
hurry, are likely to twist around some of the coils 
and carry them up the mast, to jam the block and 
prevent the sail from lowering more than half-way 
down. 

To reef a mainsail. One reef-pennant, or reef¬ 
earring, at least, should always be kept rove, in readi¬ 
ness for use. A reef-pennant is a rope which passes 
through a comb-cleat at the end of the boom, through 
the reef-cringle on the leach of the sail, and down 
through a comb-cleat on the opposite side of the 
boom. The comb-cleat has two or three reef-holes 
or more—one for each reef-pennant. At the end of 
the reef-pennant is a knot which prevents its slip¬ 
ping through the hole in the comb-cleat. 

To take a reef down in the mainsail, top up the 
boom a bit, and haul it well inboard with the sheet; 
slack away the throat and peak halyards to allow 
the reef-cringle to be brought down to the boom. 
When the cringle has been got well down, haul out 
the sail with the reef pennant until the reef band 
lies flat along the boom, and secure the earring to 
the boom with a reef-pennant bend, the method of 

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forming which is shown in the figure. Hook the 
tack on the reef-cringle at the luff of the sail, bowse 
it down and secure it. Roll up the foot of the sail 
tightly, and tie the reef-points as taut as possible, 
making sure that they are all tied on the same side, 
then haul on the halyards till the sail is once more 
properly set. 

To set a jib. In the first place, if the jib is to be 
set flying and is not permanently fastened to the jib- 
stay, lay it on the deck forward, with its tack turned 
to the bows. Hook the tack of the sail on the shackle 
or hook on the bowsprit end and the halyards to the 
head-cringle of the sail, not without looking aloft 
first to see that there are no turns in the halyards. 
Pass the jib-sheets through the fairleaders or leading 
blocks, and tie an overhand knot at the end of each 
sheet, to prevent its running out through its fair- 
lead when the jib is flapping about. Fasten the jib- 
sheets on to the clew of the sail, and if clip-hooks 
are employed for this purpose mouse them with 
twine. 

It is usual, when setting a big jib flying, first to 
hoist the head of the sail about half-way up with the 
halyards, then to haul the tack out on the bowsprit, 
and lastly to hoist the halyards till the sail is right 
up; but with a small sail it is better to haul the tack 
out and make fast before pulling on the halyards; 
for, unless it is blowing hard, it is easy so to handle 
the sail as to prevent its falling into the water. It 

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is sometimes convenient to make up a jib with light 
stops,—short cotton yarns with which it is tied when 
rolled up. When the sail is hoisted, a pull on the 
sheets breaks the yarns and the sail falls out free. 

If the jib is being hoisted when the vessel is under 
way, take the halyards to the lee-side of the foresail 
before hooking them on to the sail. On many yachts 
the jib is fastened to the stay with such hooks. These 
should be snapped on as the sail is hoisted. 

To take in a jib, slack up the out-haul and pull the 
sail inboard (if it is set flying), “mussling” it—that 
is, gathering it with your arms as it comes in. Then 
let go the halyards and pull the sail down. If two 
hands can be spared for the work, one of them should 
commence to lower the halyards as the sail is coming 
in along the bowsprit. It requires an experienced 
hand to take in a jib smartly in a strong breeze when 
the boat is tumbling about; and the novice, when 
undertaking this task single-handed, must be careful 
not to let the jib blow out of his hands into the water, 
to tow under the keel. If the jib is fastened to the 
jib-stay with hooks or hanks, just let go the halyard 
and hawe it down to the bowsprit with the down- 
haul, when it can be secured with stops. 

Topsails of any sort should be hoisted and lowered 
on the weather-side of the mainsail. If hoisted or 
lowered on the lee-side they are apt to blow away. 
Topsails are passed up between the mainsail and the 

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Sail Boats 


topping-lift, and care must be taken when bending 
the sheets to lead them inside the topping-lift. 

To set the spinnaker, the spinnaker boom is first 
laid on deck on the required side of the vessel (the 
side opposite to that on which the main boom is 
carried) the outboard end forward. The spinnaker 
halyards are then bent on to the cringle in the head 
of the sail, and the sail, which has previously been 
made up with light cotton stops, is hoisted. The 
tack is then hooked on to the end of the spinnaker 
boom with a snap hook, and the boom is shoved for¬ 
ward until the jaws of the boom rest on the mast 
some three or four feet above the deck. The fore 
and after guys are then led to the two extremities 
of the vessel and with these the boom is guided until 
it is trimmed at the proper angle. The guys are then 
belayed and a pull on the spinnaker sheet, which 
has been kept inboard, breaks the stops and the sail 
fills. Any subsequent trimming can be done by 
means of the sheet of guys. In a large vessel the 
spinnaker boom is handled by a lift, the lower end 
of the boom resting in a socket. 

To take in a spinnaker, let go the after guy. The 
boom will then go forward against the headstay, 
spilling the wind. The halyards can then be let go 
slowly while the sail is gathered in as it comes 
down. 

To get under way is not so simple a matter as 
might be supposed, and is often, indeed, a difficult 

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and delicate business that taxes the skill even of the 
experienced sailor. A slight error of judgment when 
weighing anchor or slipping from one’s moorings 
in a crowded anchorage may result in one’s craft 
drifting across another vessel, before she can be got 
under control; and if there is a strong breeze, or the 
tide is running strong, considerable damage may be 
done. 

Before proceeding to get under way, get whatever 
sails you intend to use ready for hoisting; cast off 
their stops, leaving, perhaps, one around the “bunt” 
or middle of the mainsail to keep it from blowing 
loose; bend on halyards and sheets, top the main 
boom, and see that the runners, etc., are belayed in 
their right places. 

The usual method of getting under way with a 
sloop when she is riding head to wind and tide, the 
wind being moderate, is as follows: Heave short, 
that is, get up the chain until it is nearly straight up 
and down, and the yacht is almost over her anchor. 
Hoist the mainsail. Trip the anchor smartly, and 
just as it is leaving the ground hoist the jib; at the 
same time, cant the vessel over on the required tack 
by putting the helm to port or starboard. To cant 
the vessel the quicker, keep the jib to windward by 
hoisting it with its weather-sheet belayed and ease 
off the mainsheet. As soon as the vessel has paid 
off sufficiently and her mainsail is filling, let the 
head-sail draw. If you wish to sail close-hauled, do 

i io 


Sail Boats 


not flatten in your main-sheet until you have gathered 
good steerage way. If you wish to run before the 
wind, ease the mainsheet well off, and you may keep 
the peak lowered until the vessel’s head is well round. 
If the vessel is of good size it may require two hands 
to get under way in the manner described above. 
But on a small sloop or cutter the operation can be 
performed single-handed. Hoist jib and mainsail 
before heaving upon the cable, leaving the jib-sheets 
flowing, but not so loosely that they can get en¬ 
tangled or get foul of the rigging. Heave on the 
cable; when it is straight up and down flatten in the 
weather jib-sheet and lash the tiller to leeward with 
a line. Run forward and get the anchor a-trip and 
on deck as quickly as you are able. Then let draw 
the jib-sheets, cast off the tiller line, and sail away. 

If your vessel is riding to tide and wind, and it 
is blowing hard, hoist no canvas before heaving on 
the cable, for the pressure of the wind upon the sails 
would cause the anchor to drag. Just as the anchor 
is leaving the ground put the helm over to cant the 
vessel, and hoist the jib smartly. Hoist the mainsail 
when the vessel is under way. 

If the tide and wind are in opposite directions, 
and the vessel is riding to the tide with the wind 
astern, set jib, or jib and staysail, just as the anchor 
is leaving the ground; you will then be running be¬ 
fore the wind; and if you wish to luff quickly haul 
the mainsail up as smartly as you can. 

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If the wind and tide are in opposite directions, 
and the wind be so strong that it masters the tide, 
the vessel riding to the wind with the tide coming 
up astern, the effect of the rudder will be reversed, 
so that to cant the vessel’s head to port, the helm 
must be put to port, instead of to starboard, as 
would be the case if the vessel had headway. 

It sometimes happens, when one is anchored in a 
crowded narrow place with a strong tide running 
and but a slight breeze blowing, that one cannot get 
under way in the ordinary manner without running 
a great risk of drifting foul of vessels anchored close 
astern. The following method can then be employed 
with advantage, more especially if the bottom be of 
mud. The cable is hove short. One hand goes for¬ 
ward and keeps the vessel dragging slowly astern 
by taking chain in until the anchor is almost off the 
ground, while he stands by ready to give her back a 
little chain should she begin to drag too fast. The 
tide, running under the vessel at a faster rate than 
she is dragging, gives steerage way and enables the 
helmsman to steer his craft so as to avoid the an¬ 
chored vessels, as he drifts downstream stern on. 
As soon as the vessel gets into more open water, the 
anchor is got up and the sails are hoisted. 

A vessel moored to a buoy is easier to get under 
way than one lying at anchor, as one has only to slip 
the cable, and there is no dragging of the anchor to 
be feared as it is hove short. One can wait till she 


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is canted in the right direction before slipping from 
the moorings; and by bringing the mooring-rope to 
one side or other of the vessel, one can ensure her 
casting off the required tack. Thus, if one wishes 
to cast off on the port tack, the mooring-rope is 
brought to the port side and is made fast close to 
the main rigging; this turns the vessel’s head to star¬ 
board. The sails are then hoisted; it takes a second 
to slip the moorings, and away the vessel shoots with 
all her sails full. 

Until the anchor is well out of the water do not 
get much way on the vessel, but heave to, if you 
have plenty of sea-room; for otherwise the anchor 
may be driven back by the pressure of the water, 
and get foul of the stem or bobstay. 

Having got the vessel under way, we will now 
describe some of the principal manoeuvres which 
have to be executed in the course of a sail. We will 
suppose that all plain canvas has been set, and that 
the vessel is sailing “full and bye”—that is, as near 
the wind as she can go, while yet keeping her sails 
full. Nothing is gained by jamming a boat too 
close to the wind, with her sails all on the shake; 
for though she may be pointing more directly toward 
her destination, her speed will be greatly diminished, 
especially if there is any sea on, and she will make 
more leeway. 

To sail a vessel on a wind so as to get the most 
out of her is an art not to be acquired without much 

ii3 


Sports and Games 

patient practice and observation. At first, the tyro 
will find it wearisome business to take his trick at 
the tiller when a vessel is close-hauled. He will 
ever be anxiously on the watch lest he bear away 
or luff up too much; and yet, despite all his care, he 
will be disgusted to find that at one moment all his 
sails are flapping and the vessel loses her way, and 
that at the next moment he has brought the wind 
almost abeam and is sailing away to leeward. He 
has a tendency to push his helm hard up and hard 
down alternately, thus correcting one error with 
such violence that he at once falls into the opposite 
error. 

Steering becomes in time a second instinct, and 
cannot be taught from books; but the following hints 
may prove useful to the novice: When steering (ex¬ 
cept in light winds when you want your weight to 
leeward) stand or sit on the weather-side of the 
deck. The angle at which the fly or burgee at the 
masthead is blowing out will show you whether you 
are too much off the wind when sailing close-hauled. 
If you are sailing too near the wind the shaking of 
the sail will warn you. When you see the luff of the 
jib and mainsail just lifting slightly, you are sailing 
as near the wind as you should be. The novice there¬ 
fore, when steering full and bye, should always have 
his eyes on the sails and the burgee. But when 
practice has made him an experienced helmsman the 
feel of the tiller will tell him whether he is steering 

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rightly, and with a sensitive hand he will hold the 
helm at exactly the right angle to keep her on her 
course, moving it but very slightly—almost imper¬ 
ceptibly—now and again, instead of ever passing it 
backward and forward from hard up to hard down, 
as he used to do in the early days of his novitiate. 

The best of all guides is the feel of the wind on 
one’s face, which indicates whether one is steering 
full and bye or yawing about. It is astonishing with 
what nicety a sailor can distinguish the direction of 
even a very light wind in this way. On a dark night 
when he is steering full and bye, and not by com¬ 
pass, this is the only possible guide to the helmsman; 
so, too, if the vessel is running before the wind, he 
can feel by the chill on his neck or ear if he is sailing 
by the lee or luffing up. 

When sailing full and bye it is important that the 
sails should be properly trimmed; they should not 
be sheeted so flat that the vessel becomes sluggish, 
and they must all be sheeted as nearly as possible at 
the correct angle, so that one sail will not lift long 
before the other when the vessel comes up into the 
wind. It is a common fault to flatten in the jib-sheet 
too much, by which the sail’s effect is wasted, and it 
tends more to drive the vessel to leeward than to 
propel her. If the mainsail is seen to lift before 
the jib, slacken up the jib-sheet a bit. 

Tacking. When the wind is so much ahead that 
one cannot steer directly for one’s destination, even 

n 5 


Sports and Games 

when close-hauled, the vessel has to be tacked. The 
theory of tacking has been dealt with previously; 
the practice will now be explained. 

If two or more sailors are available for the opera¬ 
tion, the following is the procedure:—The man at 
the helm selects his opportunity, and if it be heavy 
weather he awaits a “smooth,” for a vessel is liable 
to miss stays if struck by a sea before she has come 
up into the wind; then, having decided to put the 
vessel about, he sings out “ready about,” when the 
men will stand by ready to handle the sheet. If 
necessary, he should keep the vessel a point or so 
more off the wind for a short time before he gives 
the next order, so as to get plenty of way on her. The 
next order will be “helm’s a-lee,” and as he gives it 
he puts the tiller down to leeward gently, and only 
about half-way over, thus allowing the vessel to 
shoot well ahead while in stays. When she is in the 
wind’s eye he gives her some more helm to help her 
pay off on the other tack. 

In the meanwhile the men at the sheets have been 
doing their duty. As the vessel comes up into the 
wind they slack up the jib and fore-sheets; and when 
the vessel has passed the head-to-wind position, they 
haul the sheets in on the other side, which now be¬ 
comes the lee-side; but they must not do this too 
soon, else the head sails will act as back sails, prevent 
the vessel from paying off, and cause her to miss 
stays. The jib-sheet, for example, on a double head 

ii 6 


Sail Boats 


rigged vessel should not be hauled over until the 
jib has blown clear of the fore-stay; but it should 
then be got in and belayed very smartly, before the 
vessel is filling on the other tack, else the strain will 
be so great that it will be difficult to get it in at all. 
If the vessel is sluggish in stays, or if there be a 
lumpy sea, the stay-sail sheet should not be let go 
with the jib-sheet, but it should be left belayed until 
the vessel fills on the other tack. The stay-sail, thus 
taken aback, helps the vessel’s head to pay off; but 
the vessel’s way is of course stopped to some extent 
by this, and the foresail must not be kept to wind¬ 
ward a moment longer than is necessary. In order 
to go about smartly it is well to flatten in the main- 
sheet until the vessel is in the wind’s eye, and then 
to slack it off again as her head pays off on the other 
tack. 

If one is sailing single-handed, the mainsail must 
be left to take care of itself during the process of 
tacking; the jib must be allowed to pass over and 
its sheet must be belayed on the new tack before the 
staysail sheets are touched. 

If, in consequence of the helm having been put 
down too fast, or the headsheets having been hauled 
in too soon, the vessel misses stays, she is left “in 
irons,” that is, she lies helplessly head to wind, refus¬ 
ing to fill on either tack, her sails all shaking, her 
headway lost, and she soon begins to gather stern¬ 
way. In order to get her under way again (say, on 

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the port tack) haul the head-sheets to windward, 
that is, to the port-side, and slack off the main-sheet. 
This will cause her head to pay off to starboard, then 
the sails can be trimmed and she will go ahead again. 
So long as she has stern-way, remember that the 
action of the rudder is reversed, that is, the tiller 
must be put over to starboard in order to pay the 
vessel’s head off to starboard. 

To run before the wind. When a vessel is run¬ 
ning before the wind all sheets are eased off, the 
main-sheet more so than the others, so that the main¬ 
sail is almost squared to the wind. The runners, 
preventer backstays, and boom topping-lifts are be¬ 
layed on the weather-side and slacked off on the 
lee-side. 

When running, do not steer a vessel so that she 
is “by the lee,” unless it be necessary to do so in order 
to avoid collision with another vessel, or for some 
other such good reason. A vessel is by the lee when 
she bears away so much that the wind comes from 
the quarter over which the boom is squared. She 
is then very near the point which would bring the 
wind to the back of the sails and cause a jibe. A 
jibe thus brought about is always more or less dan¬ 
gerous, and may even capsize a vessel. Serious 
damage is likely to attend an accidental jibe if it is 
blowing hard; the boom swinging over with great 
violence from one quarter to the other will carry all 
before it on its way—runners, preventer backstays, 

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and topmast; and it probably will be sprung by the 
sudden jerk with which it is brought up by the main- 
sheet. The headsails always give timely warning 
that one is sailing by the lee; for the wind gets behind 
them and bellies them out from the other side before 
the mainsail is in any danger of jibing. 

Jibing. When it becomes necessary to jibe a ves¬ 
sel, proper precautions have to be taken. Before 
’ preparing for a jibe, steer so that the wind is not 
quite aft, but on the quarter opposite to that over 
which the boom is squared. Haul in on the main- 
sheet till the boom is half-way in. Then put the 
helm slowly up to bring the vessel round, and con¬ 
tinue hauling on the main-sheet till the boom is 
amidships. Before the vessel is by the lee, slack off 
the weather-runners (and weather-preventer back¬ 
stays, if these be standing) and set taut the lee-run¬ 
ners, which will become the weather-runners when 
, the jibe has been effected. As the wind strikes the 
mainsail on the opposite side, slack off the main-sheet 
so as to break the jerk and allow the boom to pass 
over easily to the other quarter. A vessel is apt 
to run up into the wind as she jibes, so the helm must 
be put up to meet her. Then sheet the headsails on 
what has now become the lee side. 

If the wind is strong it is well to lower the main 
peak before jibing. 

When running before a heavy sea a vessel is apt 
to yaw about a good deal, and therefore exceptional 

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Sports and Games 

care must be taken to avoid an accidental jibe. The 
prudent plan under these circumstances is not to 
steer dead before the wind, but to sail for some dis¬ 
tance with the wind on one quarter, and then to jibe 
and sail with the wind on the other quarter. 

A vessel is said to be hove-to when she is made to 
remain stationary, by getting some of her head sails 
aback. To heave a cutter to, luff her up till she is 
close-hauled, haul the stay sail-sheet to windward, 
and haul on the jib-sheet until the corner of the jib 
is over the forestay. If the main-sheet is now 
trimmed properly—experiment will quickly show 
how much it should be flattened in—the headsails 
and the mainsail will balance each other, the former 
causing the vessel’s head to pay off, the latter driving 
her up into the wind, with the result that the vessel 
will remain floating head to wind, making no head¬ 
way, and the tiller can be lashed amidships. In a 
vessel with a single headsail the jib, if trimmed to 
windward, will do the same thing. 

When sailing single-handed, provided you have 
sufficient sea room, heave the vessel to before under¬ 
taking to reef, shift jibs, etc. You can then leave the 
tiller and do the work at your leisure, while the 
vessel takes care of herself. 

When hove-to under snug canvas, even a small 
fore-and-after will often ride quite comfortably and 
safely through very heavy weather. To ride out 

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gale a cutter is generally hove-to under trysail and 
storm-jib, the foresail or staysail being stowed. 

To get under way when hove-to, hoist the foresail 
if it is down, slack up the main-sheet, and when the 
vessel has paid well off trim the sheets. 

When shifting sails and reefing, care must be taken 
to preserve the balance between the head and after 
sails, so that the vessel remains in good sailing trim, 
having a decided tendency to come up into the wind, 
while yet not carrying excessive weather helm. Thus 
if a large jib be changed for a small one, while the 
mainsail is left standing, the vessel will gripe and 
the tiller will have to be put hard up to keep her 
off the wind, the rudder being at such an angle as 
to seriously retard the vessel’s speed. On the other 
hand, if the mainsail be reefed while the whole jib 
is left on her, the vessel will probably carry a lee 
helm, which, as has already been explained, no yacht 
should under any circumstances be allowed to do; 
among other reasons, because, when in that danger¬ 
ous trim, she will be pinned down and possibly be 
capsized by a squall instead of luffing up into it. 

That a vessel should be in good trim is of especial 
importance when she is beating to windward against 
a heavy sea. It is essential then that her canvas 
should not only be well-balanced, but that it should 
be sufficiently reduced, so that she can be sailed 
ramping full, and be ever kept well under control; 
whereas if too much sail is carried she will have to 


I 2 I 


Sports and Games 

be luffed up into every strong puff, when the seas will 
quickly deaden her way, and she will plunge and 
tumble about uneasily in the hollows between the 
waves, and probably get in irons. When an excep¬ 
tionally big sea is seen rolling up, the vessel must be 
luffed up into it, so as to meet it end on, but as soon 
as it has passed one must bear away and fill the sails. 
Unless one has been sailing full and keeping good 
way on her, one cannot perform this manoeuvre 
properly, and with an over-canvased craft that has 
to be luffed up to puffs of wind as well as to seas, 
one will progress but slowly, and will make very bad 
weather of it. 

When running before a heavy sea, the vessel, 
especially if she be a short, beamy one, will exhibit 
a tendency to yaw about, and will require most care¬ 
ful steering. Now is the occasion for the helmsman 
to show his skill. With the novice at the helm the 
vessel will steer in the wildest fashion, now shooting 
up in the wind, now bearing right away till there is 
danger of a jibe, and the tiller will be kept ever hard 
at it travelling backward and forward from one 
quarter to the other. But the experienced man will 
keep his helm steady, and the vessel’s yawing will 
be slight; for the art of steering does not consist of 
violently forcing the tiller up and down to correct 
a vessel’s deviation from her course after it has oc¬ 
curred, but in anticipating her movements with a 
gentle pressure of the tiller before she begins to 

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Sail Boats 


fall off or come up. The helmsman feels that he is 
between Scylla and Carybdis when running before 
a heavy sea, and he needs all his nerve. For on the 
one hand he has to avoid an accidental jibe, and on 
the other hand, whenever a dangerously big and 
steep sea rolls up, he must so steer that the vessel is 
dead before it; for if it strikes her on the weather 
quarter it may cause her to broach to, that is, fly up 
into the wind till she is broadside on to the sea, a 
most dangerous position, in which she is in great 
risk of being swamped or rolled over by the next 
big wave. 

Always carry a jib when running before the wind, 
it will help to pay the vessel off if she attempts to 
broach to. One can carry more canvas when before 
the wind than when sailing close-hauled; but if too 
much sail is carried the vessel will roll heavily. Do 
not crack on canvas under the impression that it will 
enable you to run away from the following seas and 
so avoid the risk of being swamped. No vessel can 
run as fast as that. 

To anchor. When anchoring, do not pay chain 
out too fast, as it will fall on the top of the anchor, 
and possibly take a turn round the fluke, in which 
case the anchor will draw out of the ground as soon 
as a strain is put upon it. Having let the chain which 
the anchor takes as it goes to bottom run out, wait 
till the vessel goes astern and the chain tautens be¬ 
fore giving her more; then do so gradually until 

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she has enough to hold her—about three times the 
depth of the water suffices as a rule; but more will 
be required if the holding ground is bad or it is 
blowing hard. 

Having come to an anchor or picked up your 
moorings, lower the main-boom on its crutch and 
stow the sails neatly. Put their covers on the main¬ 
sail and jib, or take the latter off the stay if these 
sails are dry; if they are damp furl them loosely and 
hoist and dry them as soon as you have a chance. 
On no account put the sail coats on wet sails, as to 
do this will infallibly produce mildew. Slack off 
the clew of the mainsail before stowing it, for by 
keeping the clew constantly hauled out taut along 
the boom (a common fault), you will pull the foot 
of the sail all out of shape. Belay all halyards, 
sheets, backstays, etc., neatly, but not too taut if they 
are dry; remember that a shower of rain will cause 
all your hemp rope to shrink considerably, and then 
an over-taut preventer backstay, for example, may 
put such a strain upon the topmast as to break it. 

If it be blowing hard, or the holding ground be 
bad, or if for some other reason it is uncertain 
whether your single anchor will hold the vessel, moor 
her, that is, ride to two anchors placed at some dis¬ 
tance apart, so that the two cables form an angle. 
To moor, let go on one anchor and veer out twice 
as much cable as you intend to ride by. When the 
cable is taut let go the second anchor. Heave in 

124 


Sail Boats 


on the first cable and veer out the second until the 
same length of cable is out on both anchors. It is 
sometimes more convenient to take the second an¬ 
chor out in a boat to the place where it has to be 
let go. 

To unmoor, veer out chain to one anchor while 
getting the other anchor up. Then weight the sec¬ 
ond anchor. When lying at anchor in windless 
weather, the vessel is apt to float right over her 
anchor at slack water, just before the turn of the 
tide. The cable is then likely to take a turn round 
the upper fluke of the anchor, so that, when a strain 
is put upon it, it will pull the other fluke out of the 
ground, and so cause the anchor to drag. To ob¬ 
viate this, it is well to heave the cable short at slack 
water and let it go again when the vessel swings to 
the tide. 

If one is anchored on rocky ground the anchor is 
apt to get foul, and may have to be abandoned unless 
one has adopted one of the two following methods 
for insuring its recovery. Before letting go the 
anchor fasten the end of a small line to the crown 
of it, and buoy the other end. If the anchor has 
got hold of a rock and refuses to come up when the 
cable is hauled upon, it can be liberated by hauling 
on the tripping line. 

If a small vessel be overtaken by such heavy 
weather, when she is on the open sea, that she is in 
danger, even when hove-to under her storm canvas, 

125 


Sports and Games 

a drogue or floating anchor can be put out, a con¬ 
trivance which has enabled even small open boats 
to ride out the heaviest gales with safety. A drogue 
generally consists of a framework of iron or wood, 
with strong canvas stretched across it, so as to offer 
great resistance to the water when dragged through 
it broadside on. 

A vessel riding to her drogue with some forty 
fathoms of hawser out, as she drags astern is ever 
kept head to wind and sea, and cannot well pay off 
or get broadside on the waves as they roll by her. 

If no drogue is carried on board, a very effective 
one can be extemporized by bending one side of a 
small jib or other sail to a spar and riding to that. 
The hawser must be attached to the middle of a 
rope about twice the length of the spar, the rope 
being made fast at either end to the extremities of 
the spar, thus forming a span, and keeping the spar 
broadside on to the seas. A bit of ballast should be 
attached to the lower corner of the sail in order to 
sink it and keep it in. a vertical position, so that it 
may offer the greatest resistance to the water. The 
spar to some extent serves as a breakwater as well 
as a floating anchor, and prevents the seas from 
breaking near the vessel. 

When riding to a drogue it will be well, unless 
the g:.le be very heavy, to have a reefed mizzen set 
if the vessel be a yawl, and a reefed trysail if she be 

> 126 


Sail Boats 

a cutter; in either case the sail must be sheeted 
amidships. 

IN CONCLUSION 

Now a word of caution and advice in conclusion. 
Don’t take chances on the water any more than on 
shore; in fact, be even more cautious on shipboard. 
As the old Southern darkey said when asked to state 
his preference as to whether he would rather be 
wrecked on a train or on a steamboat: “I don’t take 
no chances on no boat. When yo is wrecked on 
land, thar yo is, but when yo is wrecked on water, 
whar is yo?” 

No matter how strong a swimmer one may be, 
there are times when a heavy sea or a gale will try 
the most expert. Come aboard always prepared for 
emergencies. Have a life-belt handy and also a life- 
preserver attached to the end of a long length of 
stout rope. A single misstep in going around a boom 
may throw one into the water at a time when such 
a mishap is least expected. This is especially true 
of landlubber friends who come on board for a visit. 

Don’t manoeuvre into a tight place or where there 
are other craft which may run foul of your anchor 
line. Give the other fellow plenty of leeway and 
exact the same precaution from him. Before going 
on any extended cruise alone, be sure you know every 
inch of your boat, every inch of your sails, and every 
inch of your ropes. Always coil up your ropes in 

127 


Sports and Games 

neat and seamanship style not only for the looks but 
also to prevent knotting or fouling in an emergency. 
Don’t see how much canvas you can crowd on to a 
boat in a swift breeze or how close you can sail to 
the wind. Always allow a margin for safety and 
for sudden squalls. Don’t allow your experience 
and familiarity with the craft to make you careless. 
Eternal vigilance is the price of pleasurable and 
safe boating. 

There is no other exercise which calls into play 
more faculties of the mind and the body than this 
of managing one’s own boat. One must be mentally 
alert and physically keen in order to get the most 
out of it; and by way of reward the more one puts 
in of such attributes, the more sport will be received 
in return. 


!T28 


MOTOR BOATS 


npHE term, motor boat, has now come to include' 
many types of craft big and little—from the 
converted row-boat of the small boy to the expensive 
launch costing thousands of dollars. We will nof 
try to describe here the more expensive types, but 
will discuss the kind of boat which is most frequently 
met with and which, in the long run, gives more 
satisfaction dollar for dollar, than the higher priced 
craft. 

One of the simplest forms of motor boat is the 
converted skiff. This may be purchased and used 
as a row-boat, but by the addition of a two-horse’ 
power motor, a substantial little craft may be evolved 
capable of carrying four or five persons and making? 
a speed of eight or ten miles an hour. Such a boat, 
motor and all, will not cost much more than $150, 
and if either the boat or the motor is bought second¬ 
hand, it can be obtained much cheaper. 

Of course, the simplest type of motor boat is the 
canoe with a single cylinder engine suspended over 
the stern. While this is not a true motor boat, and 
your sea-going mariner openly scoffs at it, it un¬ 
doubtedly gives the beginner a useful working 
knowledge of the habits of a gasoline engine. These 

129 


Sports and Games 

little canoes can get over the water at a surprising 
rate of speed, but care must be taken against over¬ 
loading them. Motor canoes are also obtainable, in 
which the motor is already installed inside. They 
are built light so that they may be portaged if neces¬ 
sary, and complete do not weigh much more than 
one hundred and fifty pounds. The chief objection 
to the motor canoe is that it is too light in frame for 
all sorts of weather, and if the owner is unlucky 
enough to strike a sharp rock the weight of the motor 
speedily drags the entire outfit to the bottom. 

TYPES OF BOATS 

Punt. The most serviceable types of motor boat 
for ordinary use are those in which the motor is set 
amidships in a substantial wooden hull; and the 
simplest type of all is the punt. This is a box shape 
craft with square ends, square sides, and a flat bot¬ 
tom. It can be decked over at both bow and stern 
with planking-, which serves as seats for the pas¬ 
sengers. Most punts are deeper in the middle than 
at either end. This diminishes the resistance of the 
water in front, while the flat bottom at the stern 
allows the punt to slide across the water like a sled. 
Thousands of such boats are in use by fishermen and 
others, and while crude-looking affairs, they “deliver 
the goods.” 

Almost any boy who can handle tools can con¬ 
struct a serviceable punt. The engine can be ob- 

130 


Motor Boats 


tained from any marine supply house, and such 
houses usually have plans for several types of suita¬ 
ble boats, or can tell where such plans may be ob¬ 
tained. The motor should be of the simplest type 
and if installed in the body of the boat about one- 
third of the way from the stern, it can be easily 
managed by one person who also operates the tiller. 

Skiff. The next type of boat is an evolution of 
the punt—the skiff. This can best be described by 
saying that it is a punt with the bow sharpened to a 
point, the stern retaining its blunt shape. The bot¬ 
tom is still flat. The sharp bow allows the craft to 
cut through the water at a better rate of speed than 
the punt. It also presents a more professional and 
sea-going appearance. While this boat is a little 
more trouble to construct than the square, box-like 
punt, it also can be made at home by anyone with 
a mechanical turn of mind. The raw materials do 
not cost much and plans can be obtained easily. The 
motor will be the principal item of expense, but all 
told such a boat should not cost more than $50, if 
home built, exclusive of the motor which can be 
purchased, new, anywhere from $70 up. 

Dory. The dory is the next step in the evolution 
of boat building from the square flat-bottom type 
to the true round-bottom type of boat. While the 
dory’s bottom is flat it is much smaller in surface 
due to the tapering sides. The bow is pointed and 
the lines of the boat swing around in graceful curves 

1 3i 


Sports and (James 

to a stem which is also partly rounded. The sides 
are built up much higher than in the skiff, which 
admits of a heavier and therefore faster engine, and 
also allows more room for stowage. Altogether, 
the dory is one of the most serviceable and popular 
types of small motor boat. For those who like to 
build at home, suchboats can be obtained in knock¬ 
down shape. The knock-down material comes all 
ready to assemble, and with full patterns and work¬ 
ing specifications. Two boys working together dur¬ 
ing their spare time of evenings and Saturdays can 
build such a boat for about one-third the cost of the 
same boat if purchased ready-made. 

Skipjack. Another simple type of boat which is 
well adapted for motors is the skipjack. This does 
not pound in the water as badly as the skiff or punt, 
because of the fact that it is built with a wedge-shape 
bow. The bottom, which is almost diamond-shaped, 
lends itself well to fast going over the water. In 
fact, some racing types of motor boat are constructed 
on this principle. A powerful motor is placed amid¬ 
ships and the whole front end of the boat is decked 
over in these racing types. The helmsman sits just 
back of the cockpit and controls and steers the boat 
very much as he would an automobile. The boat 
when at full speed lifts the bow entirely out of the 
water and skims along on the stern. 

Round-Bottom Boats. The type of racing boat 
above mentioned could not attain its maximum speed 

13 2 


Motor Boats 


with a round-bottom hull, as it would not lift out 
of water at high speed. For many other purposes, 
however, round-bottom boats are preferable. They 
do not slap the water so hard, they ride more 
smoothly and they are thus more comfortable for 
cruising or for long voyages. Round-bottom boats 
come in a wide variety of styles and types. They are 
sometimes lapstreak. Most of the expensive pleas¬ 
ure craft are of the round bottom type. 

The majority of motor boats (except those used 
for cruising) whether flat-bottomed or round-bot¬ 
tomed, rarely exceed thirty feet in length. Boats 
under this length can be obtained in many different 
models, or can be constructed at home. The motor 
need not be costly unless speed is desired, and the 
whole outfit of such an average boat, under twenty- 
five feet, if purchased, would not cost more than 
from $400 to $800. If built at home the cost would 
not be more than one-half this amount. Where the 
length runs thirty feet or more, costs mount very 
rapidly. Larger engines must be installed, construc¬ 
tion is more difficult and more accessories are 
required. 

BUILDING ONE'S OWN BOAT 

Any simple type of boat running up to twenty 
feet or thereabouts can be built at home. Many 
boys now get shop practice in connection with their 
school work which teaches them many things about 

133 


Sports and Games 

boat building. It is never wise, however, to begin 
on a large boat, or without proper oversight from 
someone who knows how. 1 he kind of material 
to use, the best form of construction, the weight of 
the planking, the shape of the stern or the bottom 
—all of these things, and many others, must be 
weighed carefully before one begins sawing and 
hammering. 

But no boat, no matter how simple, should be 
undertaken without very careful plans and specifi¬ 
cations, not only as to the shape of the boat itself 
but as to the choice of materials. Some firms will 
supply for a small sum a complete set of patterns and 
blue-prints by which a complete hull can be con¬ 
structed. These plans, while they may cost as much 
as $10 or $12, are well worth the price and will 
easily save the boat-builder their cost several times 
over. 

The boat-builder will quickly find that there is 
a lot of sawing to be done. If he can set up a small 
motor-driven buzz-saw, well and good, but other¬ 
wise after two or three days of continuous sawing, he 
may feel like chucking the entire job. The best way 
is to make a dicker with the mill from which you 
obtain the lumber, and have it sawed up to specifi¬ 
cation—that is, if you cannot install a small power¬ 
saw of your own. 

The knock-down boat, after all, is the most practi¬ 
cal type of craft to construct at home. Strictly speak- 

134 



*;.f 

. Jiia'-. 


‘ , t . j 

i t 


I I; 


t 


MOTOR BOATING 

This speedy boat provides a thrill for the man on the aquaplane behind. 

















Motor Boats 


ing this is not home built, but it will provide the 
builders with practically the same amount of build¬ 
ing experience; and the results are much safer. The 
knock-down parts are cut at the factory and are sent 
to you ready to assemble. The experienced builder, 
however, will be careful to specify that such parts 
must come from a boat that has been already set up 
and afterwards knocked down. Otherwise, he will 
find that there is any amount of finishing, beveling, 
mortising and hole-boring necessary on his part. 
Some concerns which make and sell knock-down 
boats send rough sawn material, with the ribs steam- 
bent over moulds, and not true to specifications. The 
timber itself may be full of knot-holes or checks. 
If, however, your boat has been previously set up 
and then knocked down, it insures a true hull, with 
properly set main timbers, and timber without any 
bad spots. 

Says W. H. Miller: “Most of the cost of a boat 
is in the time spent by expert carpenters in fine 
finishing all over it, and much of this is equally 
staunchly (if not so finely) done by amateurs whose 
time is charged in as recreation—for it is fun putter¬ 
ing around a motor boat, believe me! And this is 
at the bottom of the success of the business of sell¬ 
ing knock-down frames and patterns—your boat is 
a sure success, and not a demon’ as she will most 
probably be if you attempt to design as well as build 
her yourself. When I was a boy we had no knock- 

135 



fc 


Sports and Games 

down frames to start with, and some of the most 
fearful tubs ever conceived in the mind of man came 
right out of amateur shipyards in my home harbor 
town. They looked well to the eye; but as sailers 
they were nix!—any craft designed by a regular 
naval architect could sail circles around them.” 

Another big saving in the cost of a knock-down 
boat as against the cost of the completed boat, is 
the matter of freight from the factory to the water¬ 
front where the boat is to be launched. It goes with¬ 
out saying that a complete boat crated for shipment 
will cost three or four times as much to transport 
as the one which comes to you in compact knock¬ 
down shape. 

Whether building a boat from knock-down mate¬ 
rial, or direct from the lumber, sawing as you go, 
there is one thing to keep constantly in mind. Build¬ 
ing a boat is vastly different from building a table 
or any other article for use on land. A joint that 
will get by for land use may not do at all in the 
water. All seams and joints must be made as tight 
as possible, and then finished and caulked with cot¬ 
ton to present an absolutely smooth and watertight 
surface. Nearly right will not do. It is better to 
take three times as long on the job and do it right, 
than to have to go back over one’s work, and even 
then have a leaky craft. 


136 


Motor Boats 


CHOICE OF MOTOR 

It is not the providence of this chapter to discuss 
particular types of gasoline engines by name. Al¬ 
most any well-known make of engine will be found 
serviceable. Like the automobile engine, vast strides 
have been made in simplicity and efficiency during 
the past ten years, with the result that such engines 
are practically “fool-proof.” 

As a general rule, a boat under twenty or twenty- 
five feet would not require anything larger than a 
two-cycle marine motor. The horse-power ranges 
from one-half to twenty, in this type of engine, and 
the cost, of course, varies with the power. The 
owner is the best judge of the size motor that he 
wants, depending upon the uses to which he expects- 
to put his boat. If he is not looking for speed but 
wants a serviceable engine that will run day in and 
day out on short trips, say on an inland lake, he would 
not want an engine that would develop more than 
five or ten horse-power. Such an engine would be 
more economical of gasoline and upkeep generally. 

For larger and speedier boats a four-cycle motor 
would be necessary. These also can be obtained in 
varying sizes. If speed is desired—and by speed 
we mean anything over fifteen miles an hour—the 
cost of the motor mounts rapidly. For example, a 
boat capable of traveling twenty-five miles an hour 

137 


Sports and Games 

might cost $2500; while one geared up to thirty 
miles would be more likely to cost $10,000. 

After all, the reader of this article will probably 
be more interested in the everyday type of motor 
boat than in the luxurious type. And for him we can 
offer no better advice than to say, visit two or three 
good marine supply houses and look over types of 
motors for yourself. If you are not in reach of these 
houses, send for their catalogues. 'You can find 
such houses advertised in marine periodicals like 
Yachting and Motor Boating. Write a line to the 
editor of such a periodical, stating the size of your 
boat and what purpose you have in mind for it, and 
ask him the best type of motor to place in the hull. 
If there are other boats in commission around you, 
take an opportunity to visit them and talk to their 
owners about them. The school of experience is the 
best of all for the motor-boater, and if you can profit 
by the other fellow’s experience, it will save you 
both dollars and nerve-wear. 

You will find that there is a constant traffic in 
second-hand motors and motor-boats. The owner 
of one is like the automobilist in tiring of one par¬ 
ticular type of car after a season or so, and being 
ready to trade for some other. He has the advantage 
over the automobile owner in being able to rip out 
his motor from the boat at short notice, and install 
some other motor. 

The ease with which engines can be installed in 

138 


Motor Boats 


almost any kind of a hull has led to the practice of 
converting any hull that floats into a motor boat. 
Last year’s row-boat may become this year’s power¬ 
boat. The hull of a cat-boat may do duty for the 
same purpose. It is not uncommon to see a sailboat 
which also has a “kicker” installed, and which 
proves most useful on calm days. The very ease 
with which such motors can be installed in any sort 
of craft leads to some curious alliances. We have 
seem diminutive motors of one or two horse-power 
chugging away manfully to propel some ungainly 
tub of a boat that ought to have ten or twelve horse¬ 
power to get it anywhere. On the contrary, we have 
seen a small skiff carrying a motor large enough to 
sink it when a good-sized wave came along. 

If you are starting in on motor-boats, go slow and 
carry a tongue in your head. Do not take the first 
boat or the first motor that is offered you, but shop 
around a bit. The market in second-hand motors 
is always brisk. For some reason, the owners are 
generally willing to trade after the first or second 
season. This may only mean that they want a 
change; or it may mean that the motor is either 
cranky or ill-adapted to their particular boat. Do 
not buy such a motor or motor-boat without testing 
it out on the water, and preferably alongside of a 
man who is disinterested and who is experienced in 
their handling. 

Begin with a small boat the first season, aad put 

139 


Sports and Games 

in as little money as possible into it. A good second¬ 
hand open boat twenty-five feet long and simply fin¬ 
ished ought not to cost more than $250 to $300. 
Smaller ones can be found for much less money. 
Of course this does not have reference to the fancy 
boats with brass rails and furnished cabins. New 
boats under twenty feet long and without cabins can 
be obtained for about $300 or for about $20 per foot 
of length. A twenty-five or thirty foot boat with 
a small cabin and many conveniences can be ob¬ 
tained for about $1000. The cost of upkeep of one 
of these smaller boats is much less than for a larger 
boat, they are more easily sold, and their deprecia¬ 
tion is not nearly so great. Even owners of larger 
craft like to have small, knock-about boats. So it 
is just as well to begin by learning how to operate 
one of the latter type. 

It is really remarkable how many uses can be ob¬ 
tained from a little boat. It will run for hours at 
a time with very little attention except for oil and 
fuel. And it is astonishing what power can be de¬ 
veloped. 

“One of the greatest pleasures to be obtained from 
a small motor boat,” says Harold W. Slauson, “is in 
preparing it for and entering it in a race with other 
craft of its class—a race in which the smooth and re¬ 
liable operations of the motor and the efficient hand¬ 
ling of the jockeying by the navigator count for more 
than does the possession of excessively high power. 

140 


Motor Boats 


The ideal race consists of a speed contest between 
boats of exactly the same design of hull and driven 

by the same kind and size of motor. This enables 

» 

each contestant to start on even terms with all the 
others, and even though the maximum speed should 
not be more than ten or twelve miles an hour, a 
close and exciting finish may be expected and the 
winner will have deserved his success on his own 
merits.” 


14! 




BOWLING 


CUSHION 



144 




















BOWLING 


HPHE game of bowling, which is one of the most 
popular of all indoor sports, is also one of the 
oldest games known to the civilized world. Our 
ancestors hundreds of years ago indulged in an 
outdoor pastime, which, excepting a few radical 
changes during the last century or so, was materially 
the same as our present game of bowling and was 
just as popular. 

Bowling seems to have originated early in the 
Middle Ages. It was at that time a purely outdoor 
game. As was the rule with everything of that 
period, the sport was known by a variety of names. 
It was called “bowles” in English, and “boules” and 
“carreau” in French. These three names seem to 
have been the most common, but there were others, 
quite a number purely local. The game was played 
with sides or teams, as today. The balls or bowls 
were made of stone, one half spherical, the other 
half oval shape. This gave the ball a curve, which 
appears to have been very desirable as it sped down 
the bowling green. The scene of the game was 
a plot of ground called a rink or bowling green. 
At each end was placed a cone, which was the 

145 


Sports and Games 

mark for the bowlers. The cones were bowled 
from one end of the rink and then from the other. 
As in the game of quoits or “horse-shoes,” the 
object of the game was for one side to place their 
ball nearer the cone than their adversaries. The 
side bowling last would, of course, try to knock the 
opponents’ ball away from the cone, supplanting 
it with their own, the one nearest the cone scoring 
a point for his side. Skill was required to bowl in 
such a way as to curve around an opponent’s bowl, 
so as to get nearer the cone without knocking the 
other ball closer. Later, the stone bowl was sup¬ 
planted by one made of lignum-vitae. The latter 
was made perfectly spherical, and the outside of the 
tree being lighter than the heart naturally gave the 
bowl the desired bias, though often one side of the 
ball was loaded with lead to obtain the desired effect. 
The cones were finally done away with, and super¬ 
seded by a stone or earthen ball about three and a 
half inches in diameter, and known as a “jack.” In¬ 
stead of having a stationary mark at which to bowl, 
the jack was knocked all over the green, while strat¬ 
egy and skill were required to play a good game. 
In this way was derived the game of Lawn Bowls, 
described elsewhere in this book (p. 291 ). 

The bowling green of that period was one of the 
most cared-for spots about a village or an estate. A 
plot of ground as level as it was possible to find 
was picked out for it. Draining was the first process 

146 


Bowling 

in the making. This was done in such a thorough 
manner that even the hardest rains would not soak 
the ground and put it in a muddy condition. After 
draining properly it was rolled, the grass kept cut 
to the proper length, and, by the most assiduous care, 
this spot would be made as hard and level as a table. 
The size of the plot was usually about 90 or ISO feet, 
surrounded by a ditch or gutter four or five inches 
deep. During the reign of Queen Anne and the first 
three Georges, a bowling green was as popular and 
necessary an adjunct to a gentleman’s country seat 
as a billiard table is today. Usually this plot of 
ground was surrounded by evergreens, which kept 
the grass from being scorched by the burning rays of 
the sun, as well as protecting the spectators and play¬ 
ers. In many places this formed one of the most 
picturesque spots about a well-kept park or garden, 
though very frequently it was situated in close prox¬ 
imity to the dining-room, from which it could be 
reached by a flight of stairs leading from a glass 
door or bay window. As an after-dinner sport of our 
burly British and Dutch ancestors, it was very popu¬ 
lar, aiding in the digestion of their heavy meals of 
that time, consisting principally of beef and pud¬ 
ding, lubricated with heavy ale and potent punch. 

The game was first introduced into America early 
in the eighteenth century, and possibly the latter part 
of the seventeenth. It seems to have been very pop¬ 
ular in New York. An old map of that city, of the 


Sports and Games 

date 1728, shows a bowling green on the north side 
of the public garden situated near the King’s farm, 
near the foot of Murray and Warren Streets. Also 
in 1732, the locality called Bowling Green, at the 
foot of Broadway and known by the same name at 
the present day, was leased from the city govern¬ 
ment and laid out as a public bowling green. From 
the time that the sport was introduced into America 
it has really never died out, though the outdoor game 
has long since given way to the indoor game in point 
of widespread popularity. 

As an indoor sport the game originated from sev¬ 
eral games, cayles, French quilles, skittles, loggets, 
and sayles being the most popular. In cayles and 
loggets conical shaped pins made of bone were set 
up in rows of six or eight, and the players tried 
to knock them down by hurling clubs of “sheepe’s 
joyntes” at them. Knocking the pins down by bowl¬ 
ing a ball at them came at a later period. In the 
game of carreau, the players bowled at a fixed mark; 
while in skayles, closh, French quilles, clossynge, 
kittles, skittles, Dutch pins, four corners, half-bowl, 
rolly-polly, and ninepins, the marks bowled at were 
pins similar to those of the present day and bowled 
at with a ball. The games were immensely popular 
for a long time, until some laws were passed pro¬ 
hibiting ninepins and similar games. For a while 
this stopped the game, but it did not die out. The 
objectionable features were cut out, and instead of 

148 


Bowling 

nine pins set up in a diamond frame, ten pins were 
set up in a triangular frame. 

The first mention of a game being played indoors 
on a covered alley is found in William Fitz- 
Stephens 1 “Survey of London, 11 about the twelfth 
century. The first record of a match game played 
indoors in America was a game played on the Knick¬ 
erbocker alleys in New York City on January 1, 
1840. Since that time the indoor game has contin¬ 
ued to grow in popular favor until today it is one 
of the regular features of athletic and many other 
clubs. 

Until 1875, when clubs became very numerous, 
there was much diversity as to the length of the al¬ 
leys and the size of the pins and balls, as no standard 
had ever been adopted. Before that time the pins 
used were larger and heavier than the ones used now, 
and it was a much easier matter to knock all the pins 
down by hitting only one or two, making the score 
of 300 the limit. In 1875 a large number of bowlers, 
representing most of the cities of this country, held 
a meeting and adopted rules and regulations, which 
at that time answered the purpose. For the next 
ten or fifteen years, or up to 1890, bowling was a 
sort of “go as you please 11 game. In the East they 
played under the rules of the National Bowling 
League, while in the West, where a sudden boom 
started, any rule went. Under these conditions the 
boom west of the Alleghenies lived but a few years. 

149 


Sports and Games 

In 1895, or with the birth of the American Bowling 
Congress, which at once wiped out the old rules and 
substituted new ones that brought the playing of the 
game down to a somewhat scientific order, things 
began to wake up again and the bowler from that 
day to this has been looked upon as an important fac¬ 
tor not only in sporting circles but in social circles 
as well. 

HOW TO BOWL 

There are about as many opinions on this subject 
as there are grains of sand on the seashore, all of 
which are worthy of some commendation. The 
physical anatomy of bowlers makes it almost com¬ 
pulsory that each should adapt himself or herself 
to the style best fitted to them. It should, of course, 
be the first object to learn how to handle a ball. The 
balls vary in weight from one to fifteen pounds, and 
from the size of a baseball to a ball twenty-seven 
inches in circumference. It hardly appears necessary 
to warn the novice about the folly of beginning with 
the largest balls; it is an unwritten law of physical 
culture to begin with light weight first and gradually 
increase it; this every athlete will respect; but bowl¬ 
ing is different, and, while the same rule applies 
with equal force, there seems to be an all-powerful 
inclination to begin with heavy balls. This has the 
effect of straining the tendons in the back, arms and 
legs, and gives the novice the feeling next morning 

150 


Bowling 

that he must have run an endurance race during the 
night. He also finds after an hour’s steady practice 
that the ball is very stubborn, and that he has made 
little progress. 

Stick to the small ball until you acquire that 
familiarity with it which will assure you a certain 
amount of gracefulness as well as accuracy. In lift¬ 
ing a ball from the runway, turn it over until the 
holes are facing upward, insert the thumb and sec¬ 
ond finger and lift it from its position, letting the 
arm hang naturally by the side. Then walk to the 
position you desire behind the foul line. If you are 
inclined to roll a side or cross ball, naturally take 
up your place at the right-hand side of the alley; 
if you are a left-handed bowler, the left-hand side 
should be used. Step back about nine feet, holding 
the ball with both hands against the chest, or down¬ 
ward about opposite the knee; then draw an imag¬ 
inary line by a glance of the eye from the head pin 
to the foul line; then start slowly until you have ac¬ 
quired the knack of getting the ball down toward 
the pins without its going into the gutter. This can 
be done with a little practice. To the player whose 
desire it is to begin bowling by rolling a center ball, 
the same will hold good, that is, draw an imaginary 
line from either side of the head pin to the foul line, 
as the one object should be not to hit the head pin 
full in the center, but a little to either side, so as to 
avoid making a hole or “split” through the middle. 

i5 1 


Sports and Games 

Whichever style a novice adopts, it should not be 
departed from, if an improvement is desired. Be¬ 
fore stepping up the runway for a ball, the soles of 
the shoes, unless tennis or rubber-soled ones are 
worn, should be well chalked from the chalk-box at 
the head of the alleys; this will prevent any possi¬ 
bility of slipping while delivering the ball. 

Don’t take a ball from the runway while another 
ball is on its way down; this precaution will prevent 
the possibility of having your fingers smashed be¬ 
tween two balls. 

Don’t try to learn all about bowling in one day. 

Don’t use too much speed at first. 

Don’t grip the ball too tight. It is not going to 
get away from you. 

Don’t lift or throw the ball; roll it. 

Don’t swing the ball too often before delivering 
it. This will cause you to lose all accuracy. 

Don’t start with a jump; walk one, and run two 
steps. 

Don’t deliver the ball with the right foot in front, 
if you are a right-handed bowler. 

Don’t step on or over the foul line. 

Don’t think you can change the course of the ball 
after it has left your hand. 

Don’t bend or twist your body, after the ball has 
been started. “Body English” will not change its 
course; it only causes amusement. 

Don’t expect a “strike” every time. 

152 


Bowling 

Don’t throw away a “spare’ 1 because you think you 
were entitled to a “strike.” 

Don’t lose your temper. 

The following hints given by a seasoned bowler, 
W. V. Thompson, are a good summary of style of 
delivery: 

“Of course, any one can learn to bowl. Let all 
beginners step back from the foul line five steps. 
Stand erect, face the pins and let the weight of the 
ball rest on your left hand; take a firm grip with the 
right hand, swing the ball and see if the grip is all 
right. Now, don’t run, just walk fast four steps, 
starting with your right foot, and deliver the ball 
with the left foot in front. Do not bend your arm 
or your back; keep your feet far apart and bend your 
knees. Form an imaginary line to the right side of 
the head pin and bowl on that line. Do not force 
the ball at first, you will have speed to burn in a 
week. Get the swing and delivery and you will get 
the pins.” 

RULES 

The following rules of the game are abridged 
from the Official Rules as issued by the American 
Bowling Congress: 

The alleys upon which the games are played must 
be not less thar 41, nor more than 42 inches in width. 
The length from the center of No. 1 pin spot to 
the foul line is 60 feet. Back of the foul line there 
must be a clear run of not less than IS feet. The 

153 


Sports and Games 


pin spots must be clearly and distinctly described 
on or imbedded in the alleys and so placed 12 inches 
apart from center to center. They are 2]/\ inches 
in diameter. The pin spots numbered 7, 8, 9, and 
10 are placed 3 inches from the pit edge of the alleys 
measuring from the edge to the centers of such pin 
spots. 

The pins are spotted on the pin spots placed upon 
the alleys according to the following diagram, and 
the pins and spots are known by the numbers as 
follows: 

7 8 9 10 

• • • • t, 

4 5 6 


2 


3 


Gutters are placed on either side of the alley, 
which begin at the foul line and extend parallel to 
the alleys to the pit. The gutters are from 9 to 9]/ 2 
inches in width. 

The foul line must be clearly and distinctly 
marked upon or imbedded in the alleys, in dark col¬ 
ored paint, or inlaid with dark colored wood or other 
material, and must be not more than one inch in 
width. The foul line, wherever possible, should be 
extended from the alley surface to and upon the 
walls of the alleys. 

The pins are of the following design and measure¬ 
ments: Fifteen inches in height, 2]/x inches in diam- 

*54 


Bowling 

eter at their base, IS inches in circumference at a 
point 4*4 inches from their base, 11^ inches in cir¬ 
cumference at a point 7*4 inches from their base, 
5*4 inches in circumference at the neck, a point 10 
inches from the base; 8 inches in circumference at 
the head, a point 13^4 inches from the base. The 
taper from point to point shall be gradual so that 
all lines shall have a graceful curve. 

The balls must not in any case exceed twenty- 
seven (27) inches in circumference, nor exceed six¬ 
teen (16) pounds in weight. 

Two alleys immediately adjoining each other are 
used in all games. Each team starts all games on the 
alley on which it is scheduled. The contesting teams 
successively and in regular order roll one frame on 
one alley, and for the next frame alternate and use 
the other alley, so alternating each frame until the 
game is completed. Each player rolls two balls in 
each frame, except where he makes a strike, or when 
a second strike or spare is made in the tenth frame, 
or frames rolled thereafter caused by a tie score, 
when the player must complete each of such frames 
by rolling a third ball. In all such cases, the frame 
or frames from the tenth frame and thereafter are 
completed on the alley on which the first strike or 
spare is made in each frame, and play is so continued 
until at the close of even frames one of the teams 
shall have a greater number of pins than their oppo¬ 
nents, which concludes the game. 

i55 


Sports and Games 

In delivering the ball the player must not permit 
any part of his foot, while any portion thereof is in 
contact with the alleys, to rest or extend on or beyond 
the foul line, nor shall any part of his person be per¬ 
mitted to come in contact with any part of the alleys 
beyond the foul line at any time before the delivered 
ball shall have reached the pins. A ball delivered 
contrary to the provisions of this rule is a foul ball, 
and shall be so declared by the umpire immediately 
such ball so becomes foul. 

No count can be made on a foul ball, and any pins 
which are knocked down or displaced thereby must 
at once be respotted. A foul ball counts as a ball 
rolled against the player. 

Pins which are knocked down or displaced by a 
ball which leaves the alley before reaching the pins, 
or from a ball rebounding from the rear cushions, 
do not count, and they must be immediately respot¬ 
ted, and the removal or interference with pins by 
pin boy before they stop rolling shall be cause for 
umpire to order pins respotted. 

Every ball delivered, unless it be declared a dead 
ball by the umpire, is counted against the player. 

Pins which are knocked down by another pin re¬ 
bounding in the play from the side partition or rear 
cushion, are counted as pins down, except where pins 
come in contact with the body, arms or legs of a pin 
boy and rebound. 

Pins which are knocked down or displaced from 

156 


Bowling 

any cause, except by a fairly delivered ball, must in 
all cases be respotted. 

Should a player by mistake roll on the wrong 
alley, or out of his turn, or be interfered with in his 
play by another bowler or spectator, or should any 
of the pins at which he is playing be displaced or 
knocked down in any manner before his delivered 
ball reaches the pins, or should his ball come in con¬ 
tact with any foreign obstacle on the alleys, then the 
ball so delivered by him must immediately be called 
a dead ball by the umpire, and such does not count, 
but must be immediately rerolled by the player after 
the cause for declaring such dead ball has been re¬ 
moved. 

Pins which are knocked down by a fair ball, and 
which remain lying on the alley or in the gutters, are 
termed dead wood, and must be removed before the 
next ball is rolled. Should a standing pin fall by 
removing dead wood, such pin or pins must be at 
once respotted. 

A strike is made when the player bowls down the 
tenpins with his first ball delivered in any frame, 
and is credited and designated in the score by an 
“X” in the upper right hand corner of the frame, 
and the count in such frame is left open until the 
player shall have rolled his next two balls, when all 
pins made, counting ten for a strike, are credited 
therein. 

A spare is made when a player bowls down all the 

i57 


Sports and Games 

pins with his second ball in any frame, and is cred¬ 
ited and and designated with a wedge-shaped mark 
(') in the upper right hand corner of that frame. 
The count in such frame is left open until the player 
rolls his next ball in the succeeding frame, when the 
number of pins rolled down thereby shall be added 
to the ten represented by his spare, and the total 
credited therein. 

A break is made in all cases where the player 
does not secure either a strike or a spare in a frame, 
and in such cases only the number of pins knocked 
down are credited in the frame where the break is 
made. The break must be scored as an error in all 
cases where the pins left standing after the first ball 
is rolled do not constitute a split. 

HOW TO SCORE 

The question which perplexes the beginner in 
bowling is how to keep the score. This can be easily 
explained by any experienced player who may be 
present; but for the benefit of those who are taking 
up the game for the first time and who have not the 
benefit of this expert advice, a sample diagram such 
as the following will be easily understood. 

Players. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 


158 



























Bowling 

The squares marked 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., are called 
the frames, and ten frames constitute the game. 
Two balls are allowed to each bowler in each frame 
and the highest score which can be made in any one 
frame is 30 points. This is the fact which seems puz¬ 
zling to the beginner, but may be readily explained 
by saying that it is possible to score the same shot 
in three frames. 

Should the first ball sent by the bowler knock 
down the entire ten pins, he is credited with a strike 
which may be indicated by the cross mark X placed 
in the upper right hand corner of that frame. He 
does not bowl his second ball in this frame, but the 
next time up, if again he makes a strike, another X 
is placed in the upper right hand corner of frame 
No. 2. If on the third time up he makes a strike, 
it is similarly marked in frame No. 3 and a score 
of 30 goes to his credit in the first frame, while re¬ 
maining totals are carried forward. 

If on the contrary, in any one frame he clears out 
the entire ten pins with two balls, he is credited with 
a spare which is marked with a wedge-shaped mark 
(') in the upper right hand corner of the frame. 
This means that the first shot in the next frame will 
count in both frames. Let us suppose that he gets 
seven on this shot; the total score in the first frame 
would be 17. 

If the player should fail to remove the pins with 
two balls, it is known as a break and the bowler is 

159 


Sports and Games 

credited with the actual number of pins knocked 
down. If he knocks down but seven this would be 
credited to him in the first frame and if he gets 
eight more in the two shots of the succeeding frame, 
the total would be 15, as totals are carried forward 
throughout the game. 

Where two pins are left up in opposite corners 
of the alley on the first shot, or any equally impossi¬ 
ble position, it is customary to mark them with a 
small figure 0, meaning “split shot,” in the upper 
right hand corner. This does not affect the score, 
but simply indicates the nature of the play. 

The highest score which can be made is 300, which 
can only be accomplished by making strikes in each 
of the ten separate frames and thus getting a credit 
of 30 to the frame. This score, however, is extremely 
rare, and anything over 200 is considered a high 
score in ordinary games. 

VARIATIONS IN THE GAME OF BOWLING 

There are several variations to the standard game 
of bowling, one of the most popular of which is 
known as Duck Pins. This is played with balls 
about the size of croquet balls, and with small pins. 
The regular height of the duck pins is 9 inches and 
the balls measure about \ l / 2 inches in diameter. 
Each player rolls three balls to the frame instead 
of two. Beyond this all other rules in the standard 
game govern. The game is played practically the 

160 


Bowling 

same as the standard game, but on account of the 
smaller pins and balls it is impossible to get a high 
score. Anything over 125 is considered a good 
game. 

Another game known as Cocked Hat is played 
with the head pin and the right and left corner pins. 

Still another is called Cocked Hat and Feather 
where four pins are used. 

Another called the Head Pin game depends for 
its success up hitting the first or head pin at every 
shot. 

Another variation of the game, called Candle-pin, 
is used with pins 14^4 inches high, but very slender. 

Each of these games has its own set of rules, which 
may usually be obtained from the dealers who sup¬ 
ply the playing outfits. 


1 


161 












. 












CAMPING 


















CAMPING 


^JAMPING has come to be recognized as one 
of the most popular and healthful of outdoor 
recreations. It is by no means limited to the Boy 
Scout, or Girl Scout, or even to young people. En¬ 
tire families now go camping, many of them aided 
by the useful automobile. 

The simplest form of camping trip is the two or 
three day hike, where the trampers travel light. 


HIKING TRIPS FOR BOYS 

The following rules based on Boy Scout work will 
prove valuable to any group of boys or young men 
out on a hiking or camping trip of only a few days. 

When on a hike watch the character of your coun¬ 
try carefully and pick out your camping spot long 
before night. In choosing it, consider what it would 
be if the weather turned rainy or windy. Find the 
dryest and most sheltered spot that you can, and one 
not too far away from your water supply. Choose 
sloping ground, so that in the event of rainfall, the 
water will run away from you. And even though 
you may be pitching camp for only one night, it is 
well to dig a shallow trench around the uphill side 
of your camp. 

For a two or three days’ hike, one can carry a 

165 


Sports and Games 

“pup” tent, or one-half of it, since it divides into two 
parts for easy and light loads. These tents have been 
used by the Government, and are large enough to 
provide sleeping quarters for two men. They are 
not high enough to stand erect in, and are useful 
only for sleeping. 

When no tent is carried, resourceful boys can 
build lean-to’s, which are fairly weather proof, and 
serviceable for overnight resting. These are con¬ 
structed by using long poles or timbers such as fence 
rails, which are stood on end at an angle of about 
forty-five degrees, and may be further covered with 
brush, leafy branches, or bark. The open side 
should be away from the wind, usually looking south, 
but depending of course upon the lay of the land. 

For the lean-to support, select two trees about four 
or five feet apart, and lash a cross timber about six 
feet up. If two trees cannot be found conveniently 
located, drive two stakes into the ground, lash the 
cross piece across the top, and use this as the main 
support. 

If well-leaved saplings can be found, the lower 
branches can be cut away from several, and the sap¬ 
lings drawn together. The bunched tops form an 
excellent shelter. This may be improved and made 
nearly water tight by leaning poles against, the sap¬ 
lings, and thatching with leaves or grass. 

For a hiking trip where each boy is carrying his 
own equipment, his pack should have careful atten- 

166 


.Camping 

tion. It is just as easy to overload as to underload, 
and where the pack is too heavy or not well bal¬ 
anced upon the shoulders, it can become as grievous 
a burden as the bundle upon poor Christian’s shoul¬ 
ders, in “Pilgrim’s Progress.” Such a pack should 
not exceed forty pounds in weight, and if it can 
be held down to twenty-five pounds, so much the 
better. The boy should have: 

Waterproof sheet, with cord or straps. One-half 
of a “pup” tent is often used as this outside case. 

Wool blankets. 

Knife, fork, spoon, skillet, bucket, cup, matches. 

Scout knife, and small axe or hatchet. 

One flannel or khaki shirt. 

Two pairs socks or stockings. 

Two handkerchiefs. 

Comb, soap, towel, toothbrush. 

Some boys carry canteens, but unless the hike is 
through dry country this is unnecessary. 

Food supplies. Carry as little as possible, unless 
you are plunging at once into the woods or other 
wild country where small stores or friendly farms 
are not at hand where fresh supplies can be bought. 
Buy as you go along, if possible. Carry salt, sugar, 
pepper, and tea or coffee, perhaps a can or two of 
beans, some bread or bacon. But study the country 
you are going into, and if any supplies can be bought 
within a radius of two or three miles, depend upon 
your purchases as you go along. 

167 


Sports and Games 

Avoid overloading—that too-common fault of the 
inexperienced hiker. 

Choose easy, comfortable clothing — khaki shirt 
and trousers for the summer-time, or flannel and cor¬ 
duroys for between-seasons, and stout walking shoes. 
Puttees are useful for going through rough country. 
Golf stockings are excellent. For either men or 
boys short trousers make a better walking rig than 
the long ones. 

For hiking, light woolen underwear is preferable 
to cotton, as it does not stick to the skin, but permits 
the free circulation of air and moisture. That is, 
its loose texture absorbs perspiration, but does not 
retain it like cotton. 

HOW TO PITCH A TENT 

First of all, pick your site. It should be level or 
nearly so, but with the ground sloping away from it. 
Avoid a hollow or depression, unless you wish to 
wake up some morning to find your sleeping cot 
turned into a bath-tub. Do not pitch the tent 
directly under a large tree. Even though a storm 
may not come up, in which case the tree attracts 
lightning, a gust of wind may send some dead branch 
crashing down on the roof of the tent. 

A small clearing with trees all around for shelter 
and privacy is better than an open field. An easterly 
or southerly exposure is the best for a camp. The 
prevailing or storm winds come from the west or 

168 


I 


Camping 

north. Set the tent so that the sun will strike it 
fairly for at least a few hours each day, as this adds 
cheer and prevents dampness and mildew. 

The most common form of tent is the A or wedge- 
shaped, with the single triangular opening when the 
flaps are pulled apart. If two trees are conveniently 
spaced, a rope may be stretched between them which 
will serve as the ridge poles of the tent. If the trees 
are not available, cut two stout poles a little higher 
than the tent, drive them into the ground, and stretch 
the ridge rope between them. Next peg down the 
two rear corners of the tent, at the same time draw¬ 
ing the bottom of the rear flap as taut as possible 
between these two pegs. Then peg down the two 
front corners, using the same care to draw every¬ 
thing tight. A loose, flapping wall is an abomina¬ 
tion. With the four corners secure, the other pegs 
along the side may be driven in. If either of the poles 
sags after the weight of the canvas comes against it, 
it may and should be strengthened by a guy rope. 

Next a drain should be dug, and the ground 
cleared carefully under and around the tent. The 
ditch should be dug outside and all around the tent, 
at least four inches deep and with a lead off on its 
lowest side. 

A serviceable tent for two persons (and large 
enough for three) is the 7^4 by 9 feet size, with an 
inside sod cloth nine inches wide. Some experi¬ 
enced campers substitute for the front supporting 

169 


Sports and Games 

pole two cut poles locked together at their tops by 
crotches in which the ridge pole will rest, and spread 
at about the angle of the tent front. This leaves the 
door space entirely open, when the flaps are thrown 
back, and makes easier draping to keep out the mos¬ 
quitoes, flies and other pests. In fact, your experi¬ 
enced camper is likely to leave behind all ready¬ 
made tent poles and pegs, unless the camping is to 
be done in a treeless country. A mosquito net for 
the opening is light, folds up into small space, and 
is an ever-present help in time of trouble. 

“To my notion,” says Horace Kephart, “the best 
all-round size of wall tent for two people, if weight 
and bulk and cost are of any consequence, is the so- 
called 9x9 or 9 x 12, built with 3 ^ foot walls, in¬ 
stead of three foot, and 8 foot center, instead of 7^4 
foot. For four persons a 12 x 14 is commonly used; 
but a 14 x 14 with four foot walls and a 9 foot center 
has double the head-room of the standard 12x14, 
and 2^4 feet more space between the cots, if these 
are set lengthwise of the tent, two on a side.” 

No matter how thick a canvas may be, it will not 
be entirely rain-proof but will require an additional 
top or fly. It is a well-known prank of boys to rub 
the inside surface of the canvas shelter during a 
rain storm and watch the rain drops trickle through 
upon the luckless person underneath. Though this 
inside surface may not be rubbed intentionally, it 
is hard to avoid rubbing it at times; and wherever 

170 






Camping 

this contact occurs, the rain will seep through. An 
extra shelter or fly prevents this from happening and 
insures dryer and warmer quarters. 

The best weight tent canvases are duck, which 
comes in standard grades, 8 ounces, 10 ounces, 12 
ounces or heavier. The 10 ounce material is a good 
standard weight. 

A word as to color. While a white tent looks very 
pretty at the outset, it will speedily become discol¬ 
ored and mud spattered. The most serviceable color 
of all is the olive drab or khaki color. 

CAMP SLEEPING 

Next comes the all-important question of sleeping 
accommodations. Let us say at the outset that light 
cots are preferable, if the camp supplies are hauled 
in, and not carried. 

The U. S. Army used in the recent war a type of 
cot which folds up into a three-foot space and can 
be carried on the running-board of a car. Extended 
it forms a bed about b l / 2 feet long. This cot can be 
used in connection with the “pup” tent, for casual 
camping, or for “regular” camps. It pays to have 
a comfortable bed, and while on this subject, do not 
neglect, when making up a cot for the night, to place 
as much covering under as above you. Straw or leaf 
mattresses can be easily improvised, by carrying 
along empty bags; but if these are not available, use 
blankets beneath as well as above. 


Sports and Games 

An improvised cot may be made by taking two 
logs heavy enough so they will not roll, set two or 
more feet apart, and tacking the two ends of a seven- 
foot strip of canvas tightly at top and bottom. 

If no cot is available, here is the recipe for mak¬ 
ing a comfortable browse bed, from “The Way of 
the Woods, 1 ’ by Edward Breck: 

“Now the truth about browse beds is that, if well 
made, they are good; nay, more, they are delicious. 
But a carelessly made one is hard and humpy, and 
most are of this description, for the reason that the 
right kind is not made in a few minutes, but in thirty 
at least. The best is the balsam fir, on account of 
its delicious and wholesome odor and the resiliency 
of its boughs. Hemlock and spruce come next in 
order of fitness. You lay a thick row of fans at the 
back of the tent, butts toward the door and convex 
sides up. Stick them in almost perpendicularly and 
bend them over; the idea is to get springiness. Lay 
the next row six inches below the first, i.e., thrusting 
in the butts that distance from those of the first layer. 
Proceed on this plan until the whole ground is cov¬ 
ered with a thick, smooth, springy mattress, paying 
particular attention to the rows under the hips. 
Over this bed spread tarpaulins or rubber blankets 
or ponchos, and lay the blankets or sleeping-bags 
over all. The trouble with many browse beds is 
that the evergreen fans are merely strewn over the 
earth and not thrust into it; they therefore flatten 

172 


Camping 

out hard at once. The browse bed will be hard in 
two or three nights, and must be remade, some of 
the fans being removed.” 

Out West a popular covering is the “tarp” or 
tarpaulin, or cowboy bed sheet, which is a strip of 
canvas duck about eight feet wide and fifteen feet 
long. It should be wide enough to tuck in well, and 
not draw open when lifted by the body. It should 
be long enough to extend entirely under one, and 
over, with plenty of room for the feet. And it should 
be heavy enough to shed water. It is used on the out¬ 
side, with the blankets between it and the sleeper, 
who is then snug indeed. The tarp is simple and 
cheap, and can be easily procured. If a few eyelets 
are inserted along the edges or in the corners, a first- 
class sleeping bag can be improvised. Or it can 
be stretched for an outside flap or shelter tent. 

Eastern boys generally prefer a waterproof strip 
or poncho which can be worn as a raincoat, or used 
as a carrying case for the pack, and also for the outer 
cover for the cot at night. In damp weather such 
a cover keeps the blankets from getting soggy. Wool 
blankets have a tendency to suck up moisture from 
the air, which this cover prevents. 

Above all things one should avoid having insuffi¬ 
cient covering when out on a camping expedition. 
In the mountains even in midsummer it is liable to 
turn chilly after dark and the boy who goes around 
comfortably in the lightest khaki suit or a sleeveless 

173 


/ 


Sports and Games 

shirt during the day will long for a blanket before 
midnight has come. We readily recall a dismal 
experience in the month of July where sufficient 
bedding was unavailable. There were several light 
cots without mattresses provided, and we discov¬ 
ered long before night was over that the cold air 
had a fashion of coming up from underneath quite 
as readily as from above. Such a cot is only com¬ 
fortable when provided with a light mattress or 
heavy blanket of some sort underneath the sleeper. 

In chilly weather it has been found of advantage 
to build a fire against the side of some friendly rock. 
Build up a good fire and have it ready for a gener¬ 
ous log or two by turning-in time. This will reflect 
back upon the sleeper a large amount of extremely 
grateful warmth; and while you are building, don’t 
build a stingy fire. Start with small wood but work 
up to one or two good-sized chunks or small logs. 
They will hold the fire better and require very little 
replenishing during the night. 

CAMPING EQUIPMENT 

We have already mentioned the minimum amount 
of equipment which is necessary for campers who are 
going off for only two or three days perhaps afoot. 
The list given is by no means ideal. It is the smallest 
amount that can be carried comfortably. The idea 
is to lighten the camp pack as much as possible. 

However, where there is a means of conveyance 

174 


l 


Camping 

by all means plan comfortably for your camping 
trip. Says one experienced camper: “The man who 
prefers to go into the woods with one blanket, the 
clothes he has on, and the provisions he can carry on 
his back, two cooking and eating utensils, a piece of 
fish-line, and his rifle and axe, in order to ‘match 
himself against the forces of nature,’ and win from 
her by his woodsmanship a comfortable existence, is 
justified in his undertaking and plays a fascinating 
though arduous game. But he will have little time 
for anything but the scratching for food, fire and 
shelter. Most campers are not out for this purpose, 
but to breathe the pure air, to hunt, to fish, to botan¬ 
ize, collect, photograph, to paddle, to walk, to see 
the country.” 

Stewart Edward White writes in the same vein in 
his “Camp and Trail” regarding the man who makes 
it a creed to do without as many things as possible 
while off on a camping trip. “We all know the 
type,” says Mr. White. “He professes an inordinate 
scorn for comforts of all sorts. If you are out with 
him you soon discover that he has a vast pride in 
being able to sleep on cobblestones—and does so at 
the edge of yellow pines, with their long needles. 
He eats badly cooked food. He stands—or perhaps 
I should say poses—indifferent to the downpour 
when everyone else has sought shelter. In a cold 
climate he brings a single thin blanket. His slogan 
seems to be: ‘This is good enough for me’ with the 

175 





Sports and Games 

unspoken conclusion, ‘if it isn’t good enough for you 
fellows, you’re pretty soft.’ ” 

And the queer part of it is, that such a man usually 
manages to bully the other campers into his point of 
view! They accept his uncomfortable camp because 
they are ashamed to admit that they are less tough 
than he is. Back in town they are embarrassed when 
with a superior laugh he tells the company how you 
brought with you a little pillow-case to fill with 
leaves. “Bootleg is good enough for me,” he cries; 
and everyone marvels at his woodsmanship. 

As a plain matter of fact, Mr. White points out, 
this man is the worse of two types of tenderfoot. 
The greenhorn does not know better; but this man 
should. He has utterly mistaken the problem of the 
wilderness. The wild life is not to test how much 
the human frame can endure, although that often 
enough happens, but to test how well the human 
wits, backed by an enduring body, can answer the 
question of comfort. “Comfort means minimum 
equipment; comfort means bodily ease. The task is 
to balance, to reconcile these apparently opposing 
ideas.” 

Above all things, choose your wearing apparel as 
a matter of care. Many experienced campers pre¬ 
fer light woolen underwear to any other for outdoor 
trips. They say that it can be washed more easily, 
and in general keeps the skin in healthier condition. 
The best way to prevent such garments from shrink- 

176 












Camping 

ing is to soak them in lukewarm suds, squeeze out 
without wringing, rinse in cold water, squeeze out 
again, and hang up where the wind can strike the 
material. To be on the safe side it is well to buy 
such garments oversize. 

Many persons, however, do not wear woolen 
underwear summer or winter. For them a light 
short-legged, “athletic” style is the safest, as it does 
not hamper the movements'of the arms or legs. 

CARE OF THE FEET 

Many authorities, including military officers, urge 
the use of woolen socks for hiking. For forest travel, 
regardless of season, choose woolen socks, thick 
enough to cushion the feet and absorb moisture, and 
not too closely knit. In hot weather and on smoother 
trails cotton is better, because wool “draws” the feet 
at such times. On an all-day hike it pays to change 
to a fresh pair at noon. Be careful as to the fit. If 
too loose, your socks will wrinkle and chafe the feet; 
if too small, they speedily become unendurable. To 
prevent woolen socks from shrinking, every night, or 
every time you come in with wet feet, remove your 
socks, bathe the feet in cold water, put on fresh ones, 
and put the socks you have worn to soak in a running 
stream. Draw them through the hand (do not 
wring) to squeeze out water, and hang up to dry. 

The Plattsburg Manual contains the following 
sound advice to hikers and campers: 

177 


Sports and Games 

“The feet are your means of transportation. If 
you care for them properly, you will be rewarded. 

“1. Wash and dry the feet carefully and put on 
clean socks as soon as practicable after getting into 
camp. 

“2. Wash out the socks you have been wearing 
and hang them out to dry. 

“3. Do not wear socks with holes in them if you 
can possibly avoid it. Should a hole begin to cause 
rubbing, turn the sock inside out or change it to the 
other foot. 

“4. Just as soon as you decide to go into camp, 
cut your toe nails square across the ends so they will 
not grow in. 

“5. In case of any foot trouble that you cannot 
relieve, get treatment at once. Don’t wait until you 
cannot hike before reporting. 

“6. A treatment for blisters. Be careful not to 
tear off the skin covering the blister. Heat the point 
of a needle until it is red hot, and when it cools insert 
it under the live skin a little distance away from the 
blister. Push it through to the under side of the 
bruised skin or blister and then press out the water. 
To protect the blister, grease a small piece of 
chamois with vaseline and place it so that it covers 
the blister and extends over the solid skin surround¬ 
ing it. Then place a piece of oxide adhesive tape 
over the chamois. This method allows the protec¬ 
tive covering to be removed without rupturing the 

178 


Camping 

skin over the blister, and protects the new tender and 
sensitive skin so that the weight can be rested upon 
the foot without causing severe pain. One man 
should be provided with a needle, adhesive tape, a 
bottle of vaseline, and a piece of chamois for the 
common use. 

“7. Shoes, (a) Be sure they fit your feet. The 
regular shoe you wear at school won’t do for hiking 
when, with the additional weight you carry, your 
foot spreads in breadth and extends in length; hence 
your hiking shoes should be longer and broader than 
your regular shoes. This is a very important item 
and should not be neglected. If your shoes are too 
large, blisters will result; if too small, your feet will 
be cramped, and every step will be painful. 

u b. Break your shoes in prior to wearing on a 
hike. 

“c. Keep your shoes well oiled, so they will be 
soft and pliable and keep out water. 

“d. If your shoes get wet on the inside, heat some 
small pebbles (not so hot as to burn leather) and 
keep them inside the shoes until dry.” 

PERMANENT CAMP OUTFIT 

Your tent supplies should include: 

One tent, size indicated in preceding pages. 

One fly for same. 

One 10 x 12 awning to serve as a shelter for 

179 


Sports and Games * 

kitchen or dining room. This will be valuable in 
wet weather. 

Five yards mosquito netting. 

One strong clothes line. 

Ball of smaller twine. 

Spool of packing thread. 

Axe, hatchet, small saw, and spade. 

Pound or two of assorted nails and screws. 

Small mirror. 

Waterproof match box. 

Soap, pan, and towels. 

Toilet paper. 

Ready repair kit for sewing on buttons and 
patches. 

Small medicine kit including camphor, peroxide 
of hydrogen, arnica, vaseline, ammonia, iodine, sur¬ 
geon’s plaster, binding tape, small pair of scissors, 
etc. 

One or two good lanterns and an electric flashlight, 
also some candles are important. Don’t depend on 
flashlights alone, as they are liable to burn out, al¬ 
though they are excellent for special use. A good 
lantern hung on a convenient nail in the tent is the 
best light of all for such purposes. 

A small Dutch oven for use in baking is desirable. 
This can be mounted over a one or two burner stove, 
using either kerosene or gasoline vapor. Such a 
stove is invaluable in wet weather or where any in- 

180 


Camping 

door cooking is desirable. If too bulky, use a col¬ 
lapsible “baker” before an open fire. 

Your supplies for the kitchen should include: 
Riveted coffee pot 
Skillet 
Saucepan 
Kettle 

Bucket (canvas) 

Griddle 
Small basket 
Butcher’s knife 
Large spoons 
Ladle 

Small jars for grease, lard, butter, etc. 

Salt and pepper casters 
Dishpan and dish cloths 

In addition to kitchen supplies, there should be 
an adequate number of plain but serviceable knives, 
forks, spoons, plates, cups and saucers. It is a mis¬ 
take to rough it too much and deny one’s self such 
ordinary conveniences. Such cutlery can be pur¬ 
chased at any ten-cent store and adds greatly to the 
enjoyment of one’s meals. 

Don’t try to eat off the ground or some convenient 
stump or log. That may be all right for a meal or 
two, but is back-breaking and inconvenient both to 
the diner and the overworked cook. An ordinary 
folding card table or sewing table makes an excellent 
camper’s table, if supplies are hauled in. It takes 

181 


Sports and Games 

up very little room on the running-board of a car 
and can be folded up and set out of the way when 
not in use. 

Where campers are going to stop at one place for 
some days or weeks, they can readily make a table 
by bringing with them or obtaining three or four 
smooth white planks which can be fastened by cleats 
to convenient trees. Boxes can easily be turned into 
comfortable seats, and if a degree of further comfort 
is agreeable, folding camp stools can easily be 
brought along. A package of paper napkins is also 
of value not oply for use at the table but afterwards 
in wiping the plates, etc., after which the napkins 
may be burned. 

CLEANLINESS IN CAMP 

Don’t allow trash or litter of any sort to remain 
lying around the camp; it is both unsightly and un¬ 
sanitary. After each meal see that all of the dishes, 
cooking utensils, etc., are properly cleaned and put 
back in their proper places. This seems like a use¬ 
less caution; and yet we have seen more than one 
camp come to grief for lack of these simple observ¬ 
ances. A dish or a pan can be easily washed soon 
after being used, but having been allowed to stand 
for several hours with the grease or particles of food 
sticking on it, its cleaning may prove a very difficult 
matter. 

Usually in a camp of this sort the duties of the 

182 


Camping 

different members of the camp are well defined. 
For instance, one cooks the meal, another serves it, 
another cuts the fire-wood and brings the water, 
while a fourth washes up the pans and dishes after¬ 
wards. If they work in pairs it goes that much the 
easier, but at the outset if such duties are well under¬ 
stood and members shifted about from day to day, 
there are no hard feelings and the work gets properly 
done. No camper wishes to be a quitter or shirker. 
A quitter would not last long in any self-respecting 
camp, but often things get neglected because some 
fellow thinks it is not his job. The choice of a camp 
leader often avoids any such misunderstandings, but 
failing in some one definite leader, the camp duties 
should be carefully parceled out from day to day. 

In the morning, for instance, there are many little 
camp duties to perform. The fire must be replen¬ 
ished, water brought, the table set for breakfast and 
the latter cooked and afterwards cleared away. Cots 
or beds should be made up and the camp in general 
tidied up before any of the other activities of the 
day are indulged in. 

In washing dishes, first scrape off the grease or 
other food particles from dishes, knives and forks 
and have them as clean as possible before putting 
into the water. Have a kettle of boiling water and 
dissolve some soap in it. Some campers wash dishes 
by quickly dipping them into hot suds, then rinsing 
in another pan and handing to the man who is to 

183 


Sports and Games 

wipe them. Such an operation proceeds very 
quickly as the suds cut off all the grease and the rins¬ 
ing water cleans off the suds, leaving the dish ready 
to dry properly. Where very hot water is used some¬ 
times such dishes are stacked up on end and allowed 
to dry for themselves. Knives, forks and spoons, 
however, should be wiped, as they are liable to rust 
if put away damp. 

Any refuse from the table should either be burned 
or carried some distance away from the camp and 
buried. If a camp is to be pitched for some days a 
small pit can be dug into which such refuse can be 
thrown, but sand or dirt should be thrown into it 
from time to time to prevent odors and the breeding 
of insect pests. 

WATER SUPPLY 

The ideal spot for a camp should be near running 
water. To have plenty of water available for all pur¬ 
poses adds to the comfort and health of the camp. 
Not all running water from open streams, however, 
is desirable for drinking water. If you are not sure 
of the sources of your stream or its cleanliness it is 
best not to use such water except when boiled. 
Spring water is all right in its raw state but stream 
water is liable to contain in solution all sorts of im¬ 
purities. A swiftly flowing stream is more liable to 
have such impurities than a slower current. If you 
ca*n explore your stream for a mile or so above your 

184 




Camping 

camp and find it pure from that distance, you may 
safely trust it. Lake water is usually safe. A good 
way to strain such water is to dig a hole in the ground 
a few feet away from the rim of the lake. The water 
from the lake will then seep through and fill up 
the hole and such water will be filtered by passing 
through the soil in this manner. 

If your water is roily or looks impure in other 
ways but is the only water available, you can boil 
it in a large vessel for some minutes over a hot fire, 
at the same time stirring in a bit of charcoal or other 
charred wood. The charcoal tends to remove any 
odor from the water. If any scum rises to the sur¬ 
face, this can be removed, the water drained and 
boiled again. Such an operation should make almost 
any water palatable. 

FOOD 

We have previously spoken about the needs of liv¬ 
ing comfortably while at camp. This remark ap¬ 
plies especially to camp food. In an outdoor camp 
where one is constantly active and exposed to the 
elements an ordinary human being can eat about a 
third more than he can in town. Provide fully for 
such needs and at the same time plan a well-balanced 
ration. Says Mr. Kephart: “Variety is quite as wel¬ 
come at the camp-board as anywhere else—in fact, 
more so, for it is harder to get. Variety need not 
mean adding to the load. It means substituting say 

185 


Sports and Games 

three 5-lb. parcels for one 15-lb. parcel so as to have 
something different from day to day.” We have 
all met old-time campers who affect to scorn such 
things. “We take nothing with us,” they say, “but 
pork, flour, baking powder, salt, sugar and coffee— 
our guns and rods furnish us variety.” This sounds 
experienced, but there is a good deal of humbug in 
it. A spell of bad weather may defeat the best of 
hunters and fishermen. Even granting that luck is 
good, your kill is likely to be of one kind at a time. 
With only the six articles named, nobody can serve 
game in a variety of ways, or provide much variety 
for the board. 

Figure it out for yourself. How would you like 
to sit down to ham and eggs three times a day? Ham 
and eggs—and then more ham and eggs—and if you 
tire of that, try bacon and sop your bread in the 
grease. Now it is just the same with trout or bass 
as it is with pork; the same with pheasant or duck, 
rabbit or squirrel, venison or bear. Go, then, pre¬ 
pared to lend variety to your menu. Food that palls 
is bad food—worse in camp than anywhere else, for 
you’ve got to eat it, or go hungry. 

There are two kinds of food which should be 
found in every camp list—staples and luxuries. 

The staples will include flour, corn meal, baking 
powder, salt, sugar, pepper, lard, tea, coffee, butter, 
cocoa, and milk (the last named can be provided in 
cans or powdered form in a very suitable fashion). 

18 6 






Camping 

Prepared pancake flour, which can readily be made 
up into toothsome breakfast dishes, may be added, as 
well as oatmeal, rice, beans, peas, eggs, vegetables, 
fresh or dried, bacon, and canned meats and soups. 
Many soups and vegetables are obtainable in pow¬ 
dered form. 

Luxuries .—To the above list may be added fresh 
fruits, whenever obtainable, lemons, oranges, mo¬ 
lasses, syrup, marmalade, preserves, canned fruits, 
cheese, raisins, and the like. It is usually easier to 
think of the luxuries for a camp than it is to include 
all of the necessities. Be very sure that your list of 
staples includes enough so that in any emergency a 
well-balanced meal can be provided. Some pack¬ 
ages of assorted cookies also come in handy, and 
bread should be either provided or baked. It is 
easier, however, to buy bread, that is, if a farm¬ 
house or store is within hailing distance, than it is 
to try to bake it. Whenever possible, lay in a supply 
of fresh vegetables, as they not only add to the enjoy¬ 
ment of the meal but to the health of all of the camp¬ 
ers. Canned meats, such as sardines, tongue, tuna 
fish, salmon and beef are good in an emergency, but 
are not good as a steady diet. Fresh meat should be 
provided wherever and whenever possible. 

MOTOR CAMPING 

A species of outdoor trip that has become increas- 
ingly popular in the last few years is that of motor 

187 


Sports and Games 

camping. Motorists now travel across the country 
in increasing numbers, stopping from place to place 
as fancy dictates, and superior to the blandishments 
of hotels, both small and large. Among the advan¬ 
tages of this mode of travel is that the motorist is 
not schedule bound, he does not have to engage rooms 
in advance, and his expenses are greatly reduced. 
Furthermore, this is a thoroughly healthful and 
pleasurable way of spending one’s outing. 

Some motorists, especially in the West, provide 
themselves with a trailer or cart which is pulled 
along behind the automobile. These carts are so 
arranged that they can very quickly be transformed 
into sleeping quarters for the night; likewise pro¬ 
viding abundant space to carry camping supplies. 
They have not become widely popular, however, 
because they do not make for easy traveling. The 
cart lumbering along behind retards the speed and 
is very clumsy, but some motorists will put up with 
these inconveniences for the sake of having more 
room in their car and greater comfort out on the 
road. A form of tent for automobiles which has 
proven popular is a species of half tent which fas¬ 
tens directly to the side of the automobile and slopes 
away from it, thus providing a room about 7x9 feet 
for sleeping quarters. Such tents roll up into small 
compass and they have no poles or paraphernalia to 
add to the weight or bulk. 

We know of one motorist who contrived such a 

188 


Camping 

tent with many little conveniences. He rigged up a 
“trouble” light connected with his battery and sus¬ 
pended from the top of the tent in such a way as to 
illuminate the whole interior. Two folding military 
cots were also carried along. These cots, as pre¬ 
viously described, fold into a space of about 3 feet 
but when extended form a substantial cot about b l / 2 
feet long. All of the camp supplies were carried in 
two racks constructed upon the running-boards of 
the car. These were covered with black oil cloth 
when in place, so they did not present an unsightly 
appearance. 

Sometimes cots are fastened to one end of the run¬ 
ning-board of the car and extend outwardly at right 
angles to it. This method of rigging up cots requires 
but one set of legs, at the lower end. 

Strange to say, the automobile manufacturers have 
not as yet awakened to the possibilities of so con¬ 
structing the interior of a touring car that it can 
readily be transformed into a sleeping car. If the 
front seats were hinged in the back so they would 
drop, something like the seats in a railway sleeping 
car, such a bed could readily be constructed. In 
fact, the writer has seen such a touring car provided 
with space for two very comfortable beds through 
the ingenuity of the owner, who was himself a 
mechanic. 

To carry a separate type of tent has some advan¬ 
tages, as tourists camping at a place for two or three 

189 


Sports and Games 

days often wish to use their cars for short trips; and 
if the tent is attached to it, this requires extra work 
every time such a trip is made. 

Towns and cities all over the country are realizing 
the fact that the automobile camper has come to stay. 
They are providing campers’ accommodations and 
in other ways making it attractive for motorists 
to stop in their midst. Such camping spots are pro¬ 
vided just outside the town itself. There are open 
cook stoves provided, also running water, fire-wood 
and sometimes shelter. Frequently, a small general 
supply store as well as garage adjoins the grounds, 
and the motorist can obtain all needed supplies right 
at his own door, so to speak. Such camping sites are 
not only convenient for the motorists; they have also 
proved profitable to the town. The community that 
gets a name for hospitality will be stopped off at 
longer and patronized more freely by the apprecia¬ 
tive camper. The little group of motorists drawn 
thus from the ends of the country frequently strike 
up pleasant friendships and have a good time socially 
while stopping in the same locality. It is not an 
unusual thing for a man to spend the summer on the 
road with his family, and coast-to-coast trips are by 
no means unusual. As our roads become better and 
such camping accommodations more general, this 
species of camping should prove to be one of the 
most popular of all outdoor sports. 


190 


CRICKET 


Off Side 





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Point 

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Slip 

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Point 

O 


Wicket 

Keeper 


Bowling Crease-^ y 1 
Popping Crease-^ 


m: 




Batsman Umpire 


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cv 


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% 


Popping Crease^ 
Bowling Crease 


Mid On 

o 




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Bowler 


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Umpire 


Mid On is 

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and termed - 

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192 


On Side 









CRICKET 


/ T“ V HE game of cricket occupies the same position 
in sports in England that baseball does in the 
United States. It is the chief outdoor recreation 
with the exception of football. The origin of the 
name has been traced to the old French word criquet, 
meaning a stick. There is also an Anglo-Saxon 
name crice, meaning a staff. 

The history of the game rests in obscurity. There 
is a crude drawing which dates back to the middle 
of the thirteenth century representing two men as 
playing at a game of bat and ball. Other references 
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries show a 
similar game. A pastime known as “Hand in and 
Hand out” was played during the reign of Edward 
IV, and was forbidden by royal statute because of the 
fact that it was said to interfere with the practice of 
archery. By the time of the reign of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth, the game became known as cricket and is re¬ 
ferred to as a popular sport. By the middle of the 
eighteenth century it had become modernized into 
the game much as we have it at the present time. 

There are numerous cricket clubs scattered over 
England today, some of which date back for an un- 

193 


Sports and Games 

interrupted history of upwards of a century. The 
London Club, in 1774, drew up laws regulating the 
game which are the oldest extant. While these have 
been amended somewhat during the succeeding 
years, the rules remain substantially the same. 

While the game is played in a few scattered sec¬ 
tions in this country, it is still a rarity or unknown 
to most American outdoorsmen. 

IMPLEMENTS OF THE GAME 

The cricketer requires, first of all, a bat pref¬ 
erably made of English willow. The length of the 
bat is now restricted to 38 inches (36 inches being 
the length most in favor) of which the handle is 14 
inches and the blade the remainder. There is no 
law governing the weight of the bat but it varies 
between 2 and 4 pounds, the ideal weight being about 
2]/ 2 pounds. It is usually made of willow, with a 
cane handle, and has a broad, flat surface, into which 
strips of rubber are inserted to give it driving power. 

The cricket ball is made of cork and covered with 
leather, making an extremely light missile. It 
should measure not less than 9 inches nor more than 
9y inches in circumference, and should weigh be¬ 
tween Sy 2 and 5y ounces. 

The wicket toward which the ball is driven com¬ 
prises three upright pieces of wood of equal thick¬ 
ness and 27 inches high. On the top are placed two 
“bails” or short pieces of wood which fit into grooves 

194 


Cricket 


made in the top of the uprights so as not to project 
more than one-half inch above them. These up¬ 
rights, which are also called “stumps,” form a wicket 
8 inches wide. At the other end of the field 22 yards 
distant is placed another wicket. 

Lines are marked at each wicket and at right 
angles to the line of play, which are known respec¬ 
tively as “popping creases” and “bowling creases.” 
The batsmen stand between these creases when strik¬ 
ing at the ball. 

HOW TO PLAY THE GAME 

A succinct description of cricket is given by the 
“English dictionary,” which defines it as “an open- 
air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two 
sides of eleven players each; the batsman defends 
his wicket against the ball which is bowled by a 
player of the opposing side, the other players of this 
side being stationed about the field in order to catch 
or stop the ball.” 

The progress of the game is indicated by runs, as 
in our game of baseball, and the side which scores the 
greatest number of runs wins the match. Each team 
is allowed two innings taken alternately, except that 
the team which obtains a lead of 150 runs in a three 
days’ match or a 100 runs in a two days’ match, or 
75 runs in a one day match, acquires the right to 
make the other side call a “follow their innings.” 

In playing, one side sends its men in regular order 

195 


Sports and Games 

to bat, while the other side is scattered in the field, 
as in baseball—but there the resemblance ends. 
There are playing positions, but no bases; and there 
are two batsmen up at once, one defending each 
wicket. 

It is the object of the batsman either to stop the 
ball sent by the bowler and thus prevent it from 
striking the wicket, or to bat it out into the field. If 
he bats it, he may attempt to exchange wickets with 
the other batsman, while the ball is being fielded. 
If he does so successfully, he is credited with a run. 
He stays at bat until put out. 

When 10 out of the 11 men constituting a side are 
put out, it completes an inning. The game usually 
continues two innings, and the side netting the most 
runs wins the victory. 

The 11 positions in the field are as follows: bow¬ 
ler, wicket-keeper, long-stop, slip, point, cover-slip, 
cover-point, mid-ofl, long-leg, square-leg, and 
mid-on. 

The wickets are placed opposite and parallel to 
each other, at a distance of 22 yards, as before stated. 
A “bowling crease” is marked with whitewash on 
the turf on a line with the uprights, and 8 feet, 8 
inches in length. “Return creases” are marked on 
right angles at each end of these lines. A “popping 
crease” is placed four feet in advance of the wicket 
and parallel with it; this being a line of varying 
length. 


196 


Cricket 


The game is begun by the captains of the opposing 
sides tossing up for choice of innings. The captain 
obtaining the winning toss generally sends his own 
team in to the wicket to bat first. He places one 
batsman at each wicket. When an “over” has been 
bowled, the batsman at the opposite wicket then at¬ 
tempts an over in his turn. At the end of every such 
over the fielders change position in order to inter¬ 
cept the batting from the other end. A “run” is 
made when the two batsmen at opposite wickets ex¬ 
change places by running from their ends of the far 
wicket without being “run out” by one of the fielders. 
The aim of the side which is at bat is to make as 
many runs as possible, while the opposing side in 
the field endeavor to intercept their plays. 

According to the official playing rules, there are 
nine ways in which the batsman can be put*out. 
(1) The striker is “bowled” out if the bowler hits 
the wicket with the ball, when bowling, and dis¬ 
lodges the bail; (2) he is “caught” out if the ball 
after touching his bat or hand be held by any mem¬ 
ber of the fielding side before it touches the ground; 
(3) he is “stumped” out if the wicket-keeper dis¬ 
lodges the bail with the ball, or with his hand hold¬ 
ing the ball, at a moment when the striker in playing 
at the ball has no part of his person or bat in contact 
with the ground behind the popping crease, i.e., 
when the batsman is “out of his ground”; (4) he is 
out “1. b. w.” (leg before wicket) if he stops with 

197 


Sports and Games 

any part of his person other than his hand, or arm 
below the elbow, a ball which in the umpire’s judg¬ 
ment pitched straight between the wickets and would 
have bowled the striker’s wicket; (5) if when the 
batsmen are attempting to make a run a wicket is 
put down (i.e., the bail dislodged) by the ball, or 
by the hand of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a 
moment when neither batsman has any part of his 
person or bat on the ground behind the popping 
crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket 
so put down is “run out.” The remaining four ways 
in which a batsman may be dismissed are (6) hit 
wicket, (7) handling the ball, (8) hitting the ball 
more than once “with intent to score,” and (9) ob¬ 
structing the field. 

HOW TO BOWL 

The art of bowling is brought to perfection only 
by untiring practice. To become a successful bowler, 
one should commence when young, as it requires 
steady practice, patience, determination and strength. 
Of course a beginner must have a good eye and a love 
for the game, or he will never make a bowler. Some 
men become natural bowlers with little practice, 
while others must practice continually. 

There are a few things that a learner should ac¬ 
quire, which are: First, hold the ball correctly with 
the finger tips on the seam, as a better grip can be 
obtained, which will assist greatly in giving a twist 

198 


Cricket 


to the ball—not in the hollow of the hand. Take a 
short run of five or six yards before delivering the 
ball. Practice to deliver the ball on either side of 
the wicket. Do not bowl hurriedly (unnecessary 
haste destroys pitch and directness). All this is of 
importance to young bowlers, and should be remem¬ 
bered. 

It is best for a young bowler to start in by bowling 
a slow or medium pace ball. The art of varying the 
speed and length of the pitch by dropping the ball 
shorter and shorter to a driving batsman, and pitch¬ 
ing up closer and closer to a man who habitually 
plays back, has to be acquired, as is also the twist or 
bias which gives the ball such “life” after it touches 
the ground. 

The young bowler must practice untiringly until 
he can pitch any length he desires, and gain com¬ 
mand of the ball. (To do this I would suggest bowl¬ 
ing at an undefended wicket until one has sufficient 
confidence and command to bowl at a batsman in 
front of the wicket.) 

Wear spiked shoes in bowling, not rubber-soled 
tennis shoes; the spikes give a solid footing, and 
allow the bowler a better command of the ball. 

It is useless to bowl so short that a ball falling 
from the pitch when it reaches the batsman can be 
cut or pulled at will, even if the ball is on the wicket, 
or so full that he can play into it and drive it away 
with ease. Lengths and changes of pace should be 

199 


Sports and Games 

well practiced. Study the style of play of the bats¬ 
man to whom you are bowling, whether he is strong 
or weak in his forward or back play, and bowl ac¬ 
cordingly. If he is batting carefully and playing all 
good length balls delivered him, bowl for catches, or 
tempting balls for him to hit at, especially good 
length “off 1 balls, which if touched are very apt to 
give catches in the slips. 

There are two deliveries, a high and a straight 
arm. Both have their advantages, and it is well for 
a bowler to practice to command both. 

Good temper is more essential to a bowler than to 
any other player in a game, for the best bowling 
will be hit about, catches will be missed, and often 
a sticking batsman will tire you out by blocking away 
for an hour, contenting himself with making a half- 
dozen runs. Let this not bother you, but when you 
find you are losing “snap” or command of your bowl¬ 
ing, make a change. 

Position. When the batsman takes his place at 
the bat he should be in an easy, natural position. 
Suit yourself whether your heels are together or 
three or four inches apart. Take guard from the 
other side of the wicket from which the bowler de¬ 
livers the ball. It is best to take middle, but if you 
find you are likely to get your legs before the wicket 
in the act of playing the ball, take the middle and 
leg for guard. The safest place for your block hole 
is three inches from the popping crease, and stand 

200 









Cricket 


with one foot just inside of the same crease and about 
four inches away from your block hole. 

Play. As the bowler starts to bowl, rise slightly. 
Make your position easy, and do not allow yourself 
to be “tied-up” or stiff, but when you play or hit at 
the ball do so with freedom of arms and body. The 
best way to hold your bat is to have your hands half¬ 
way between the bat’s shoulder and end of handle, 
with the hands two inches apart. Let the right foot 
act as a pivot in the forward play, forward cut, leg 
hit and leg poke. Always wear leg guards and 
gloves while batting. 

Forward and Back Play. First learn to defend 
your wicket from the ball by steady and patient play. 
Your hitting powers will come afterward. 

The Forward Play. It is only by patient practice 
that a batsman can master this play (and it is one of 
the most important). In playing forward, do so 
with the left elbow out from the body, as well as 
forward, getting over the ball. If this is not done 
you are very apt to play with a cross bat. Look out 
that the bowler doesn’t draw you forward on a short 
pitch ball, which is very likely to result in a catch 
if it touches your bat; or cause you to be stumped 
if you should miss it, and have your foot outside the 
crease. See that you reach well on to the pitch of 
the ball, which will kill a shooter or block a ball that 
twists to the leg or off stump. 

The Backward Play. In playing backward, judg- 

201 


Sports and Games 

ment must be used in selecting the proper length 
ball to play. Do not allow the bowler to drive you 
back on a ball well pitched up that should be hit. If 
such a ball should shoot or hug the ground, the 
chances are it will bowl you. This play is generally 
made by moving the right foot backward twelve or 
eighteen inches from its stationary position, balanc¬ 
ing well on that foot. In making the play, keep the 
left elbow well out from the body, and don’t draw 
away from the ball. This will cause you to play 
with a cross bat. 

The Cut. The cut is one of the most difficult hits 
to make, and can only be made when a ball rises a 
little wide of the off bail. Care must be taken to 
time the ball, and not hit too soon or too late, or the 
result will be a catch in the slips. When you see the 
ball about to rise, draw the right foot backward and 
across the wicket. In hitting at the ball make as late 
a stroke as possible, coming down on top of the ball 
from well over the shoulder. The hit is most suc¬ 
cessfully made by not trying to put all your power in 
the stroke, but by giving the ball a slight hit or 
touch, using freedom of the wrist (very much like 
snapping a whip). 

The Forward Cut. The forward cut is made by 
placing the left foot forward and across the wicket, 
keeping the right foot stationary. The stroke is 
made from a short pitched ball, hit hard forward 
of point, and kept well on the ground. 

202 


Cricket 


The Leg Hit. The leg hit is made by placing the 
left leg well forward in the direction from which the 
ball is coming, and hitting across at it hard with a 
swing of the bat from the shoulder. Be sure the ball 
is well off the leg wicket to prevent your being out 
leg before the wicket, should it hit your leg, and if 
not hit by the bat or does not touch the leg passing 
back of you and clear the wicket. 

The Leg Poke. The leg poke is a very useful and 
effective hit against swift bowling. It is made off a 
ball that is bowled on the legs, and instead of being 
hit at, is gently touched with the bat and sent behind 
the batsman for one or two runs. In making the 
play the bat should be placed forward of the left 
leg. 

Caught Out . If any fielder catches the ball direct 
from the striker’s bat or hand before it touches the 
ground, he is caught out. 

Run Out. If the batsman, in making a run, fails 
to reach his ground before the wicket to which he 
is running is put down with the ball by a fielder, he 
is run out. 

Leg Before Wicket. If the batsman stops with his 
leg or other part of his body a bowled ball whose 
course, in the opinion of the umpire, is in a line 
with the wickets, and if not so stopped, would have 
taken the wicket, the play is called leg before wicket. 

At every ball bowled, therefore, the batsman must 
guard against all these dangers, and avoiding leg 

203 


Sports and Games 

before wicket, play the ball so that it will not strike 
the wicket and can not be caught. Having hit it 
away, he can make a run, or runs, if he can reach the 
goal before the ball is returned by the fielders and 
the wicket to which he is running is put down. 

HOW TO FIELD 

Fielding is a very important part of cricket, some¬ 
what different from baseball in the handling of the 
ball, and good or bad fielding goes a great way 
toward losing or winning a match; although looked 
upon by a large number of cricketers as of little im¬ 
portance. They insist upon batting. How often 
one can save runs in the field when he is unfortunate 
in not making them off the bat. How discouraging 
it is to a bowler to have catches missed off his bowl¬ 
ing. Bowlers should have the assistance of fielders 
to be successful. They can not be expected to bowl 
all the wickets down. 

The fielding points shown us by English teams that 
recently visited this country should be a good lesson 
to cricketers on this side of the water. It was very 
noticeable how sure and well they stopped a ball, 
taking advantage of either hand, using one hand 
oftener than two; but this I would not encourage. 
They were generally sure catches, backed up the 
wicket keeper and bowler with judgment, and were 
very accurate on their returns or throws to the 
wicket. 


204 


Cricket 


The most important positions on the cricket field 
are point, slips and mid-wickets. A fielder to fill 
these positions must be active, a sure catch, and 
always on the alert. The wicket-keeper’s position 
should not be forgotten, as it is a very important one. 
There is one thing a fielder should always have in 
mind; that is, to expect every ball bowled to come to 
him when hit. He is then prepared to field it, but 
it is too often the case with cricket fielders that they 
are caught napping and have to be waked up by the 
captain or a ball hit their way. It is proper that 
every fielder should watch the game and notice his 
captain’s or bowler’s signs or word, and obey in¬ 
stantly, as he is the responsible one for placing you 
in the different positions on the field. 

In catching a high-hit ball near the wicket get 
well under it as it is falling, holding your hands to 
receive it above the face, and let them give with the 
ball as it touches the hands. Hold it firmly, as balls 
so hit invariably descend with an awkward twist, 
and a “muffed fly” will be the consequence if at all 
careless. 

A long-hit ball to the outfield which has seldom 
any twist imparted to it by the bat, is more easily 
held by the catcher. Considerable practice is re¬ 
quired to judge the ball from the moment it leaves 
the bat, and it is this instinctive faculty that makes 
an outfielder valuable in proportion to his ability in 
this respect. Such a player can cover more ground 

205 


Sports and Games 

in less time and with a greater certainty of holding 
the ball, than a player who is slower in judging, 
although a much faster runner. 

To handle a low-hit or ground ball, get in front 
of it, and the moment before it reaches you, p’ace 
your heels together, hold your hands apart about 
knee high, watch the ball closely, and with a quick 
movement bring your hands together in front of the 
ball. Should it shoot or pass under your hands it 
will be stopped by your feet; should it bound, your 
hands will meet it. Practice the above movements 
on a smooth piece of ground, at first slowly, improv¬ 
ing the speed as you gain confidence. Don’t rush 
in on a hard-hit ball, or wait for a slow hit to reach 
you. 

To stop a ball with one hand while running side- 
wise to head it off, use care to place your foot behind 
your hand, so if you are late in getting your hand 
down, the ball will be stopped by your foot, as it is 
difficult to stop a ground ball with one hand when 
under full headway. 

Throwing the Ball. Get the ball in proper posi¬ 
tion in your hand, between the thumb and two fin¬ 
gers, and throw with the hand well out from the 
shoulder and no higher than your head. Always 
aim to throw the ball so it can be handled breast high 
(at a short distance) and on the single bound to the 
top of the wicket from cover point, long slip or the 
outfield. 


206 


Cricket 


Fielders should not forget to back up the bowler 
or wicket-keeper on a ball thrown in by a fielder, 
standing six to eight feet behind him. All fielders 
should have their shoes well spiked, as a slip of the 
foot is often the cause of a miss catch, a ground ball, 
or a poor return to the wicket, thereby losing the 
chance of a run out. 


207 


















CROQUET 


LOWER 

STAKE 



HOME 

STAKE 


2 TO 












CROQUET 


^jROQUET in its present form is a comparatively 
modern game. It has not the weight of years 
to increase regard for it. The name seems to indi¬ 
cate France as its origin, and it is said to have been 
brought from there to Ireland, thence to England. 
It may have been evolved from the French game of 
paille-maille which was played with mallets, balls 
and hoops as far back as the thirteenth century. The 
game of polo was also derived from this or a similar 
game. 

Tradition has it that a game resembling croquet 
was played in Ireland one hundred years ago, and 
there is a definite record that it was taken to England 
by the middle of the last century. Its popularity is 
evinced by the fact that an all-English croquet club 
which held annual contests was formed in 1868, the 
championship contests taking place at Wimbledon. 

It was not long thereafter that the game was 
brought to America where it sprang into wide popu¬ 
larity in the days just after the Civil War. One of 
the first literary references to it is in Louisa M. All- 
cott’s Little Women. By the year 1890 it had at¬ 
tained wide vogue, and big public contests were held 

211 


Sports and Games 

in Boston, Brooklyn and elsewhere. These were on 
carefully sanded grounds, and the game thus played 
differed in many essentials from the amateur sport 
which was a sort of go-as-you-please affair on any 
grassy plot or back lawn. With the coming of tennis 
and golf, croquet languished and is now played com¬ 
paratively little. 

One thing in its favor is that croquet needs no 
special dress. It can be played on the spur of the 
moment by persons of almost any age and of either 
sex and without any special preparation with regard 
to costume. The absence of excessive physical exer¬ 
tion is suited to those who would, if compelled to 
change suits, take no exercise at all, and they can 
return to business or any avocation after an hour of 
croquet with linen and clothes none the worse for 
their effort, and with an exhilaration that all outdoor 
exercises invariably secure. It is especially adapted 
to sedentary persons and those in mature life, to 
whom the vigorous roughness of baseball and the 
lively skirmishing of lawn tennis would be anything 
but a pleasure. 

When played on a sanded surface or on a short 
firm sod, croquet is as scientific as billiards. There 
is a greater field (literally as well as otherwise) for 
strategy, the exercise of deliberate judgment, nerve, 
coolness and boldness of play in croquet than in bil¬ 
liards, much as some may question the truthfulness 
of the assertion. The eye and the hand become 

212 


Croquet 

trained. Lawn tennis calls for muscular action in 
immediate response to counterplay. Judgment must 
be instantaneous and muscular movements rapid and 
fatiguing. Croquet stands in strong contrast with 
its deliberate strokes, its moderate exercise and non¬ 
fatiguing efforts even when prolonged. It is richly 
deserving of increased interest. 

The high degree of skill made possible by the 
introduction of narrow arches, hard rubber balls, 
and heavy mallets, prevents the game from being 
regarded as fit only for children and elderly persons. 

IMPLEMENTS USED IN THE GAME 

Complete croquet sets can be purchased in any 
sporting goods shop and in many other general stores. 
It is not well, however, to purchase a cheap set, as 
the balls are of light-weight wood, easily chipped or 
cracked, and the mallets more like toys than real 
playing tools. A wide latitude is allowed in the 
choice of balls and mallets and in the width and dis¬ 
tance of wickets. 

First of all, one should have a level piece of 
ground either with sanded surface or with smooth, 
closely-cropped grass. It should be about 60 by 30 
feet, although 50 feet by 25 will serve. The larger- 
size playing field with narrow wickets naturally con¬ 
duces to a stiffer game. 

Two stakes or posts are set up, one at each end, 
allowing 8 or 10 feet of playing space back of them. 

213 


Sports and Games 

On larger fields the first wicket is placed 8 feet from 
the stake and the second in line with it and 7 feet 
distant Two wickets at the other end of the ground 
are similarly placed. A center wicket or basket, in 
the middle of the ground, gives a total of five wickets 
down the field from stake to stake in a straight line. 
In the game of roque, a modification of croquet, the 
center arch is set up as a series of two arches a short 
distance apart and at right angles to the others. 
In both games, four other wickets are placed on the 
side lines, one at each corner opposite the second 
wicket from each stake. The wickets should be sunk 
into the ground 6 or 8 inches or set in blocks of wood 
buried under the surface to insure stability. In pro¬ 
fessional games the wickets are only a trifle wider 
than the balls; but in ordinary games they are twice 
as wide. 

The best mallets are made of boxwood, with the 
heads 7 or iy 2 inches long and iy 2 inches in diam¬ 
eter, and the handles from 8 to IS inches in length, 
as best suits the player. Individual taste has caused 
a great variety of mallets, those used by skilled play¬ 
ers having long heavy heads and short handles. 

The best balls are of hard rubber. They can be 
easily painted by using a preparation of shellac dis¬ 
solved in alcohol, mixing with Chinese vermilion 
for red, Prussian blue, and zinc or flake white for 
white. Thus painted they will dry in a few minutes 
and wear for several weeks. Most balls for the ordi- 

214 


Croquet 

nary game are made of hard wood and are painted 
with stripes of varying colors in order to prevent 
becoming confused in play. The standard size of 
the ball is 3*4 inches in diameter. 

HOW TO PLAY THE GAME 

The object of the game is to drive one’s ball by 
successive strokes of the mallet through the various 
wickets by rotation until one has made a complete 
circuit of the ground and has arrived at and struck 
the home stake. While he is trying to accomplish 
this end, he is also trying to prevent his opponent 
from doing likewise. The players take turn about, 
and when one fails to pass through a wicket or to 
strike a ball or a stake, it becomes the next player’s 
turn. The opponent’s ball can be played upon and 
driven from position. The game can be played by 
any small number of persons but is really a better 
four-handed game, two to a side, as then there is a 
better chance for team work, generalship, and variety 
of play. A good game.for two players, is where each 
player manages two balls. This brings out team 
work and generalship, as in the four-player game. 

In this country a professional game known as 
roque was evolved from croquet and offers a skilled 
player an opportunity to play not only straight shots 
but also caroms from the side boundaries. 

The chief points of excellence in croquet are: 

First, accuracy in croqueting or making one ball 

215 


Sports and Games? 

hit another from the blow of the mallet. Here the 
accurate eye and the trained hand are needed, for 
at a distance of twenty feet a ball three and one- 
fourth inches in diameter subtends a very small 
angle, and a very small divergence of the line of 
direction of the impinging mallet will cause the 
struck ball to go wide of its desired course. 

Second, ability to take position in front of arches 
so as to pass through them successfully, for the arches 
being only three and one-half inches wide in pro¬ 
fessional games give little chance of passing through 
to a ball of three and one-fourth inches when in a 
“wild position.” 

Third, “wiring” or “staking” an adversary’s ball 
so as to leave no ball “open” or “exposed.” This is 
done sometimes from a distance of fifteen or twenty 
feet. 

Fourth, and greatest of all, is good generalship, 
for without this all excellence attained in the three 
preceding points will be manifested in vain in a 
hard-fought game. Closely associated with the first 
is the ability to “drive” or “block” the ball at a cer¬ 
tain angle to reach a position desired. This will be 
attempted only when the balls are near together, for 
at a long range croquet only is attempted. 

It is possible that “jump shooting” ought to be 
added to these, for this, at first thought seemingly im¬ 
possible method of play, is a special feature with 
some players > and not infrequently they are relieved 

216 


Croquet 

from an otherwise inextricable position by a timely 
jump shot, by which a ball from a peculiar down¬ 
ward stroke of the mallet may be made to pass over 
one or more intervening arches and “capture” a ball 
supposed to be safe from all danger. 

In this, as in every other game, there are certain 
general principles which should guide one in his 
play. Before referring to these we will notice first, 
mallets; and second, the position taken in the use of 
the mallet. The size and weight should be that 
which, after trial, the player likes the best. The 
mallets in the cheaper sets come with extra long 
handles and these do not lend themselves to any ex¬ 
tremely accurate game. 

As regards position in striking, different persons 
will stand in different positions, and there is no such 
rigid rule as in golf. However, the best stance is with 
the feet slightly apart and the stroke being made 
with an easy side-arm swing. To play with the mal¬ 
let between the feet, or to make a shove shot, is dis¬ 
tinctly bad form. Do not be too long in your aim; 
a quick stroke after getting your line between two 
balls is generally the most accurate; but there is one 
point that all must observe if the ball is to hit the 
mark: after getting your line of aim, and your mallet 
resting ready for the stroke, keep your eyes fixed on 
your own ball. Any deviation from this rule, either 
for short or long shots, will end in failure. 

217 


Sports and Games 

And now as to a few general principles to be 
observed: 

First. Keep your own balls together, and sepa¬ 
rate those of your adversary. 

Second. Keep with you or your partner the “in¬ 
nocent” or last played ball of your adversary. 

Third. Keep the “guilty” or next playing ball of 
your adversary wired as much as possible. 

Fourth. When you can make no further run, give 
your partner the best set up you can. 

Fifth. Do not play for the guilty ball when, if 
you miss, you give him a chance better than he had 
before. 

9 

Sixth. If you have but a poor chance to make a 
run, set up the balls for your partner. 

Seventh. In making a run, provide as much as 
possible for points ahead. Do not leave balls behind 
you if you can avoid it. 

TERMS USED IN CROQUET 

To Roquet —To hit with one’s own ball another 
ball for the first time. 

To Croquet —To place player’s ball against the 
roqueted ball and then striking his own ball, moving 
both. 

Carom —A rebounding from an arch, a stake, or 
the border. 

In Play —A ball is in play so long as points are 
made, or balls hit in accordance with the rules. 

218 


Croquet 

Dead Ball —A ball on which the player has played 
since making a point. It is then “dead” to the 
player till he makes another point or has another 
turn. 

Direct Shot —Roquet: this is a direct shot, whether 
the ball in passing to its destination does or does not 
carom from a wire, or a stake, or the border. 

Drive or Block —English “rush”: a roquet played 
so as to send the object ball to some desired spot. 

Cut —To drive the object ball to a desired posi¬ 
tion, by causing player’s ball to hit it on one side. 

Run or Break —The making of a number of points 
in the same turn. 

Set Up —To locate the balls so as to afford facility 
for making the next point or run. 

Wiring —To leave the balls so that the next finds 
a wire between his ball and the object ball. 

Object Ball —The ball at which the player aims. 

Jump Shot —Striking the ball so as to make it 
jump over any obstacle between it and the object 
aimed at. To do this, the ball should be struck with 
considerable force on the top and just back of the 
center. 

Guilty or Danger Ball —The next to be played on 
the adversary’s side. 

Innocent Ball —The last played ball of the ad¬ 
versary. 

Rover —A ball that has made all the points except 
the last. 


219 






Sports and Game| 

Tight Croquet —Holding with the hand or foot 
the ball placed against another for the sake of cro¬ 
quet, thus allowing only the latter to be moved. 

Loose Croquet —Striking a ball when it is in con¬ 
tact with another, where it has been placed for the 
purpose of croquet, thus moving both balls. 


220 


FOOTBALL 


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222 







































FOOTBALL 


lTpOOTBALL at the present day is one of the most 
popular of all sports. In this country its one 
rival is baseball, but in England it has no rival. It 
is particularly attractive to the spectators, and there 
are reports of an attendance at some English con¬ 
tests of over 150,000 people. In the United States 
some of the large games are attended by 80,000 to 
100,000 spectators. 

It is a game requiring activity, skill, pluck and 
endurance, although it by no means makes the de¬ 
mand upon the heart and lungs that long running 

V 

races or boat races do. 

Its origin was very ancient, and it is spoken of 
on many occasions in the literature of England of 
the twelfth century; and even further back than that 
it is evident that the Greeks and Romans had some¬ 
thing which might be called similar. Later, in Eng¬ 
land, whole villages played against each other, and 
the ball was kicked or carried through the streets. 

Its first definite formation as an organized sport 
was due to the public schools in England: Rugby, 
Charter House, Westminster, Harrow and Eton. 
Later it went into the universities and became pop¬ 
ular there. Wherever English colonists went they 

223 


Sports and Games 

carried the football game with them, and as it had 
become divided into the Association game, “soccer,” 
which is more kicking, and the Rugby game, which 
is more a game for carrying the ball, so the countries 
which took their sport from England took sometimes 
one and sometimes the other. In America a kind 
of mongrel game was played more nearly resembling 
perhaps the Association game, but in the early ’70’s 
Harvard visited Canada, and there had some 
matches under Rugby rules which proved so satis¬ 
factory that, through the instrumentality of Har¬ 
vard, Yale adopted them, and they then became com¬ 
mon to all the American colleges. At the same time 
the rules were altered more or less and extended to 
meet the American needs. 

American intercollegiate football is played on a 
field 360 feet long and 160 feet wide, including an 
end zone of 30 feet behind each goal. The goals are 
set 300 feet apart. The two sets of goal posts are 
set up in the middle of each goal line, and must 
not exceed 20 feet in height. They are placed 18 
feet, 6 inches apart, and have a horizontal crossbar 
10 feet from the ground. White border lines mark 
out this enclosure; and transverse lines every five 
yards are marked to aid in determining how far 
the ball is carried. Beginning with each goal line, 
these are numbered toward the center of the field, 
5 to 50. (See diagram.) The ball is an oval rubber 
bladder, inclosed in a pigskin casing and inflated 

224 


Football 


with air. The circumference, long axis, is from 28 
inches to 28^ inches. Its short axis, from 22^ to 
23 inches; weight from 14 to 15 ounces. The ob¬ 
ject of the game is for each opposing side to carry 
the ball across its opponent’s goal line or kick it 
over the goal-bar, at the same time preventing their 
rivals from accomplishing this against them. 

The game is played by two teams of eleven men 
each. For convenience in locating these players 
the following diagram shows them in a position of 
offense. 

Naming of Players in Customary Position on Offense 

0.0 o o o o o 

End Tackle Guard Center Guard Tackle End 

o 

Quarter-back 

Half-back Half-back 

o o 

o 

Full-back 

The general arrangement of players is in two 
groups, the “rush line players” or “forwards,” at 
least seven of whom must be on a line with and par¬ 
allel to their end of the football at the commence¬ 
ment of each scrimmage; and the “backs” who are 
usually located behind the scrimmage line. Various 
offensive and defensive combinations are resorted 
to in the endeavor to outwit the enemy. - 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

The match is begun by the choice of sides. The 
referee tosses up a coin before the game in the pres- 

225 


Sports and Games 

ence of the captains of the opposing teams, first des¬ 
ignating which captain shall call. The winner of 
the toss has the choice of goal or kick-off, which 
choice shall not be revokable. If the winner of the 
toss selects the goal, the loser has the choice of kick¬ 
ing off or receiving the kick-off. These privileges 
as to choice are reversed at the beginning of the third 
period. 

The side having the kick-off, kicks the ball from 
the center of its own 40-yard line, and in the direc¬ 
tion of the enemy’s goal. The players on the kicker’s 
side then follow after the ball down the field while 
the opposing side intercepts it. Thereupon a scrim¬ 
mage ensues, which like every other feature of the 
game must follow certain well-defined rules. The 
reader is referred to the Official Rules published by 
Spalding each year, and which are subject to fre¬ 
quent revision. 

In general, a scrimmage consists of a concerted 
effort on the part of either side to retain possession 
of the ball, after which they seek to advance it by 
a series of “downs,” kicks, runs, forward passes, or 
other strategy, through the enemy’s country to the 
coveted goal post or goal line. 

A scrimmage ensues when a runner with the ball is 
stopped by one of his opponents. The ball is then 
placed on the ground, with the two teams lined up 
and alert to tackle each other. On a given signal 
the ball is snapped back by the center, either to the 

226 


Football 


quarter-back or to some other player chosen to carry, 
throw, kick, or otherwise advance the ball. The 
side having the ball must make at least ten yards in 
four attempts, or else surrender the ball to the op¬ 
posing side. The fourth attempt, however, is seldom 
made as—if sufficient gains have not been made in 
three trials—the side advancing the ball usually 
elects to kick it as far down field in the enemy’s 
country as possible. 

When the ball is put in play by a scrimmage, 
at least seven players of the side holding the ball 
must be on the line of scrimmage. 

A player is considered to be on the line of scrim¬ 
mage if he has both hands or both feet up to or within 
one foot of this line, or if he has one foot and the 
opposite hand up to or within one foot of it. He 
must also stand with both feet outside the outside 
foot of the player next to him, unless he is one of 
the two men standing on either side of and next to 
the snapper-back (commonly known as guards), in 
which case he may lock legs with the snapper-back. 

If a captain desires to shift the center, guard or 
tackle into the back-field, he may do so after notify¬ 
ing the referee; but the player so shifted must not 
again return to one of the middle line positions. Any 
one of these men may, however, be taken five yards 
back without consulting the referee, and may later 
return again to his position. 

There are other rules and penalties connected with 

227 



Sports and Games 

the scrimmage which we have not space to include 
here, but to which the reader and player are re¬ 
ferred in the Official Rules governing this important 
element of the game. 

The game itself is decided by the final score at 
the end of four periods of play. The following is 
the value of the plays in scoring: 


Touchdown .6 points 

Successful “try for point'’ after 

touchdown .1 point 

Goal from the field.3 points 

Safety by opponents.2 points 


The score of a forfeited game shall be 1 to 0 in 
favor of the offended side. 

The length of the game is four periods of fif¬ 
teen minutes each exclusive of time taken out, with 
ten minutes intermission between the second and 
third periods, and an intermission of one minute 
each between the first and second, and the third 
and fourth periods. The time of these periods may 
be shortened on account of local conditions by mu¬ 
tual consent. 

The game progresses in a series of downs, fol¬ 
lowed by passes, runs, or kicks, as the case may be, 
the only limitation being that of a rule designed to 
prevent one side continually keeping possession of 
the ball without any material advance or retreat, 

228 






Football 


which would be manifestly unfair to the opponents. 
This rule provides that four “downs” or attempts to 
advance the ball, a side not having made ten yards 
toward their opponents’ goal must surrender pos¬ 
session of the ball. As a matter of fact, it is seldom 
that a team actually surrenders the ball in this way, 
because, after two or three attempts, if the prospects 
of completing the ten-yard gain appear small, it is 
so manifestly politic to attempt a forward pass, or 
to kick the ball as far as possible down the field, that 
such a method is more likely to be adopted than to 
make a last attempt by a run and give the enemy pos¬ 
session almost on the spot. In such an exigency, if 
a kick be made, the rules provide that it must be such 
a kick as to give the opponents fair and equal chance 
to gain possession of the ball and must go beyond 
the line of scrimmage unless stopped by an opponent. 

There is one other element entering into this phase 
of the game, and that is the fair catch. This can 
be made from a kick by the opponents, provided the 
catcher takes the ball on the fly, and, no other of his 
own side touching it, plants his heel in the ground 
at the spot where the catch is made. This entitles 
him to a free kick; that is, his opponents can not 
come within ten yards of his mark, made by heeling 
the catch, while he (and his side) may retire such 
distance toward his own goal as he sees fit, and then 
make a punt or drop, or give the ball to some one 
of his own side to place the ball for a place to kick. 

229 


Sports and Games 

He may, if he prefers, put the ball down for an 
ordinary scrimmage. His own men must be behind 
the ball when he kicks it, or be adjudged off-side. 

We will suppose that the ball, by a succession of 
plays, runs, kicks, downs, fair catches, etc., has ad¬ 
vanced toward one or the other of the goals, until 
it is within kicking distance of the goal posts. The 
question will now arise in the mind of the captain 
of the attacking sides as to whether his best plan 
of operations will be to try a drop kick at the goal, 
to attempt a forward pass, or to continue the running 
attempts, in the hope of carrying the ball across 
the goal line, for this latter play will count his side 
a touchdown, and entitle them to a try for one point 
more. On the other hand, if he try a drop kick and 
fail to score, the ball can be brought out to the 
twenty-yard line by his opponents for a kick-out. In 
deciding, therefore, whether to try a drop kick, or 
continue the running attempts, he should reflect upon 
this and also upon the value of the scores. The 
touchdown itself will count six points, even if he 
afterwards fails to secure the additional possible 
point, while, if he succeeds in securing it, the touch¬ 
down and point together count seven points. A drop 
kick, if successful, counts three points, but is, of 
course, even if attempted, by no means sure of re¬ 
sulting successfully. He must, therefore, carefully 
consider all the issues at this point, and it is the hand¬ 
ling of these problems that shows his quality as a 

230 






Football 


captain. If he elects to continue his running at- 
tempts, and eventually carries the ball across the 
line, he secures a touchdown, and any player of his 
side may then bring it out for a scrimmage not nearer 
than the five-yard line, from which his side may 
add an additional point if in a single play they make 
a field goal or secure a touchdown. 

There is one other issue to be considered at this 
point, and that is, if the ball be in possession of the 
defenders of the goal, or if it falls into their hands 
when thus close to their own goal. Of course, they 
will naturally endeavor, by running or kicking, to 
free themselves from the unpleasant situation that 
menaces them. Sometimes, however, this becomes 
impossible, and there is a provision in the rules which 
gives them an opportunity of relief, at a sacrifice, 
it is true, but with the score less against them than 
if their opponents should regain possession of the 
ball and make a touchdown or a goal. A defensive 
player may at any such time kick, pass or carry the 
ball across his own goal line, and there touch it down 
for safety. This, while it scores two points for his 
opponents, gives his side the privilege of bringing 
the ball out to the thirty-yard line, and then taking 
a kickout, placing it for a scrimmage. 

DEFINITIONS 

Place-kick —Made by kicking the ball from its 
position while it is resting upon the ground. It is 

231 


Sports and Games 

allowable to scrape up the earth, but no artificial tees 
shall be permitted. 

Kick-off —A term used to designate the opening 
play of the first and third periods and consists of a 
place-kick from the 40-yard line of the team entitled 
to kick. 

Punt —Made by dropping the ball from the hand 
or hands and kicking it before it touches the ground. 

Drop-kick —Made by dropping the ball from the 
hand or hands and kicking it the instant it rises from 
the ground. 

Free Kick —Any kick when the opponents are re¬ 
strained by rule from advancing beyond a certain 
point before the ball is put in play, and includes 
kick-off and kick from a fair catch. 

Snapping the Ball —Putting it back from its posi¬ 
tion on the ground with one quick and continuous 
motion of the hand or hands, the ball actually leav¬ 
ing the hands on this motion. 

Scrimmage —A scrimmage takes place when the 
holder of the ball places it flat upon the ground, with 
its long axis at right angles to the line of scrimmage, 
and puts it in play by snapping it back. The scrim¬ 
mage does not end until the ball is dead. 

Off-side —A player is off-side when the ball has 
last been touched by one of his own side behind 
him. 

On-side —Any men who are off-side are put on- 
side as soon as the ball is touched by an opponent. 

232 


Football 


Time of Game —The game continues during four 
15-minute periods, with a 10-minute intermission 
between the second and third periods. 

Officials —The officials of a game consist of an 
umpire who judges fouls, and a referee who rules 
upon the progress of the ball; also, in important 
matches, a timekeeper and linesmen are necessary. 

Fair Catch —Made by catching the ball after it 
has been kicked by one of the opponents and before 
it touches the ground, provided the player, prior 
to an attempt to catch the ball, signals his intention 
of making a fair catch by raising his hand clearly 
above his head and does not take more than two 
steps after making the catch. 

Try-for-Point —A privilege granted the side 
which has made a touchdown to add one additional 
point to its score by successfully executing a single 
play from scrimmage. 

Goal from the Field —Made by kicking the ball 
from the field of play either by a drop-kick or a 
place-kick over the cross-bar of the opponents’ goal. 
A goal cannot be scored by a kick-off. If after the 
ball passes directly over one of the goal posts, or if, 
after being kicked, it strikes an opponent and then 
passes over the cross-bar or one of the goal posts, 
it shall count a goal. In no case shall it count a goal 
if the ball, after leaving the kicker’s foot, touches 
the ground before passing over the cross-bar or goal 
posts. 


233 


Sports and Games 

Out of Bounds —The ball is out of bounds when it 
crosses the side line, or any portion of the player car¬ 
rying it touches the side line; and it is brought back 
to that spot and put in play. 

Tripping —Obstructing a player below the knee 
with the hand or with that part of the obstructing 
player’s leg that is below the knee. Mere diving 
under the play is not tripping. 

D own —A down occurs when the referee blows his 
whistle or declares the ball dead. 

Touchdown —Made when the ball, lawfully in 
possession of a player, is declared dead by the ref¬ 
eree, any part of it being on, above, or behind the 
opponents’ goal line. The referee shall immediately 
blow his whistle and declare that a touchdown has 
been made as soon as the ball has been carried on, 
above or across the goal line, or upon the legal com¬ 
pletion of a forward pass in the end zone. 

Touchback —Made when the ball, in possession of 
a player guarding his own goal is declared dead by 
the referee, any part of it being on, above, or behind 
the goal line, provided the impetus which sent it 
to or across the line was given by an opponent. 
Other touchbacks are defined in the Rules. 

Safety —Made when the ball in possession of a 
player guarding his own goal is declared dead by 
the referee, any part of it being on, above or behind 
the goal line, provided the impetus which caused 
it to pass from outside the goal line to or behind 

234 



Football 

the goal line was given by the side defending the 
goal. 

Crawling —Crawling is an attempt by the runner 
to advance the ball after it has been declared dead. 

Forward Pass —An attempt by the side having 
possession of the ball to advance it into the enemy’s 
territory by means of passing it from player to player 
or throwing it through the air. A player on the side 
which has put the ball in play from a scrimmage 
may pass or throw the ball any distance toward the 
opponents’ goal under the following restrictions: 

(a) The pass must be made from a point at least 
five yards back of the scrimmage line. 

(b) Only one forward pass may be made in each 
scrimmage. 


235 





$ 













GOLF 






I 



GOLF 


/ T S HE origin of golf is shrouded in antiquity. 

Long before Columbus discovered that the 
world was round, other folks had discovered the 
roundness of the small golf ball. The name may 
have been derived from the German, kolbe, meaning 
club. The Dutch once played a game called kolf, 
but this does not bear much resemblance to our mod¬ 
ern golf. There were also early games in Belgium, 
France, and Italy, which suggest the modern 
game. One of these early games was called jeu de 
mail which in English became pell mell. In this 
game a smooth boxwood ball was hit with a long 
mallet, something like a croquet mallet. The later 
game of polo on horseback was also derived from 
this early game. The Scotch are credited with be¬ 
ing among the earliest players of the game of golf, 
but whether they invented it as it is now known or 
adapted it from the Dutch is a matter of conjecture. 

Golf was a popular game in England as early as 
the year 1457. We know of its vogue by that date 
for the reason that the stern members of Parliament 
had begun to take notice of it. For some reason it 
had come under their official displeasure, and we find 

239 


Sports and Games 

Parliament passing an ordinance to the effect that 
golf be “utterly cryit dune, and nocht usit.” Some 
thirty-five years later another law was passed to the 
same effect, and “fut ball” was included in the ban. 
It may have been that there was too much gambling 
with these early games; or that the games caused 
people to neglect their work; or possibly that the 
“golf widows” of those early days petitioned Parlia¬ 
ment to keep their husbands at home for them. But 
whatever it was, the law was passed and like many 
another law, good or bad, only served to stimulate 
the popularity of the sport. 

Golf was a popular game, as we have said; this is 
proved by frequent denunciations of golf-playing on 
Sunday. In 1592 and 1593 the Town Council of 
Edinburgh contributed to the pious gloom of their 
country by forbidding this harmless and healthy 
amusement on Sundays. John Henrie and Pat 
Rogie, early masters of the club, were prosecuted 
for “playing of the Gowff on the Links of Leith 
every Sabbath the time of the sermonses.” At Perth, 
Robert Robertson suffered in the same cause, and 
sat in the seat of repentance in 1604. There is a 
seat of repentance in the town kirk of St. Andrews, 
the City of Martyrs. Many a long driver, many a 
“fell” putter must have consecrated by his weight 
this inestimable relic. The old Church, the Catho¬ 
lic Church, never persecuted anybody for playing 
golf. The early Stuarts, on the English throne, 

240 


Golf 


wanted their Scotch subjects to play after church, 
but, of course, that was enough to prevent a true 
Scot from playing. 

Golf was a royal as well as a popular game, and 
was played by the gentry. In 1503, in the Royal Ac¬ 
counts, we find £21, 2s., “for the King to play at the 
golf with the Earl of Bothwell.” Only nine shillings 
were paid for the Royal club and balls; probably he 
had a bet on with Bothwell. Clubs cost a shilling 
each, and balls were four shillings the dozen. Need¬ 
less to say, that these balls were of leather, stuffed 
with feathers. In 1603, Louis VI. of France ap¬ 
pointed William Mayne to be royal clubmaker, and 
in 1618 he gave James Melvill a monopoly of ball¬ 
making at four shillings each ball. Balls from Hol¬ 
land were pretty heavily taxed, for this was before 
the delightful discovery that it is sometimes good 
for a country to be undersold by foreign cheap labor. 
From a Harleian MS. we learn that the ill-fated 
Prince Henry, bemoaned by Chapman and other 
poets, was a golfer, and that the play was “not un¬ 
like to pale maille.” 

Among illustrious golfers we find the great Mon¬ 
trose, who played on St. Andrews, as well as Leith 
Links. These were the metropolitan links of Scot¬ 
land, being “within a mile of Edinburgh Town.” 
That a good many clubs were used then as now 
appears from Montrose’s purchasing a set of six, be¬ 
sides having some “auld anes” mended. The anec- 

241 


Sports and Games 

dote of Charles I. breaking off a match at Leith be¬ 
cause news came of the Irish Rebellion is very well 
known, but is said by Woodrow, no friendly critic 
of Charles, to be incorrect. His Majesty played his 
game out. 

In the time of his son, James II. (then Duke of 
York), we hear of the “forecadie” who ran in front, 
to mark the ball down. Professionals were then ap¬ 
parently unknown, for when James wanted a Scotch 
partner to make out a foursome with two English¬ 
men, he was induced to choose a shoemaker by the 
name of John Patterson. The cobbler won his match, 
and the grateful king gave him a coat of arms with 
the device of a hand, dexter, grasping a club, with 
the motto, “Far and Sure.” 

Golf in America is in its infancy compared to these 
records of other countries; but it is an exceedingly 
lusty infant. At the beginning of the present cen¬ 
tury it was played only in a comparatively few 
chosen spots. Says Harry Vardon, the former Brit¬ 
ish champion: “I made a long golfing tour through 
the United States in 1900, when Englishmen for the 
most part regarded the game there with as much 
seriousness as they would have bestowed upon golf 
in Timbuctoo. At that time it seemed to be taking 
a firm grip on our cousins, and I saw enough to 
convince me that America was coming on quickly, 
and that before long the old country would have rea¬ 
son to fear her. Everything that has happened since 

242 


Golf 


then has strengthened my belief, and the eyes of the 
British were at last fairly opened when the cham¬ 
pionship was played in 1904, resulting to the chagrin 
of our own leading amateurs, in a victory for an 
American. Mr. Walter J. Travis became the victor, 
and took back with him across the Atlantic the 
Amateur Championship Cup.” 

Since then there have been several upsets for Brit¬ 
ish golfers at the hands of Americans; notably, when 
Francis Ouimet, a Boston amateur only twenty years 
old at the time, defeated the great Vardon and Ray 
from England and the best of other golfers from 
that country, France and America; and in 1921 when 
Jock Hutchison of the United States won the British 
Open Championship. 

Nowadays, no town of any considerable size con¬ 
siders itself “in it,” without at least one golf course. 
The town of Montclair, in New Jersey, boasting 
about thirty thousand inhabitants, maintains three 
clubs in the nearby suburbs and patronizes about five 
others within a radius of five miles; and each club at 
last accounts had a waiting list. 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

The underlying idea of golf is simple enough; in 
fact, to the innocent bystander it looks childish. The 
object is to drive the small ball by means of clubs 
across country a given distance and sink it in the 
cup. Where two or more players are engaged, the 

243 


Sports and Games 

player who drops the ball into the cup in the fewest 
number of strokes wins the hole. 

This may sound simple enough, but oh, what a 
wealth of anathema is conjured up in the words to 
any veteran golfer! 

To be more exact in our description of the game, 
the players start from a given place called the tee. 
From this tee, which is a small raised platform 
usually of turf, they drive a carefully placed ball, 
which is usually elevated on a little pat of sand in 
order to facilitate a clean stroke. After leaving the 
tee the ball, if properly directed, goes along a fair¬ 
way in the direction of the putting green. The fair¬ 
way is a smooth sward of turf which, however, may 
present a number of hazards or obstacles. There 
may be water to cross, or ditches, or artificially con¬ 
structed bunkers, of which more later. At each side 
of the fairway rough spots may be designedly left 
to catch the inaccurate driver. 

As stated before, the object is to drive the ball 
from the tee to the cup. The latter is a small de¬ 
pression in what is known as the putting green, a 
very smooth, short-turfed area perhaps thirty feet or 
more in width which surrounds the cup. In the 
West and South sand putting greens are often used 
instead of grass. 

The distance from the tee to the cup varies in dif¬ 
ferent courses from the short “hole,” as it is termed, 
of less than a hundred yards, to the longest ones of 

244 


Golf 


over five hundred yards. The average length is 
about three hundred yards. Nine such holes con¬ 
stitute one-half or round of the course, and eighteen 
holes a game. Some small clubs which have only a 
nine-hole course play it twice around in order to fill 
out the game. 

The game itself is scored in two different ways— 
either for medal or match ball. In the medal ball 
the game is decided by the number of strokes actually 
used. In the match ball the number of holes won is 
the deciding factor. 

CLUBS USED IN THE GAME 

As the strokes in the game vary from the “long 
drive” off the tee of many yards to the put on the 
green of a few inches, and as various kinds of ter¬ 
rain must be played over, it naturally follows that 
several different kinds of clubs are required. For a 
long time golfers used only wooden clubs—drivers, 
spoons, brassies, and putters. Then came the “iron 
age,” which has resulted in the following clubs in 
the average bag: two wooden clubs—the driver and 
the brassy, and five or six iron clubs—such as cleek, 
mid-iron, mashie, lofter, niblick, and putter. 

The first club that the golfer will be called upon 
to use is the driver. This is a long-handled club with 
a heavy wooden head. Its face or playing surface 
next to the ball is almost perpendicular. It is in¬ 
tended to propel the ball for a long distance in a 

245 




Sports and Games 

straight line and without raising it in the air very 
much. Beginners watching a game often exclaim at 
some driven ball that rises in the air like an insane 
sky rocket. A ball such as this looks pretty but does 
not get very far, and also has a tendency to drop 
“dead.” Your old-time golfer tries to effect a ball 
that will arch itself in the air only enough to gain 
sufficient carry to go a long distance through the air 
and have a top spin to carry it along still further 
after it reaches the ground. The drive may be as 
much as 2S0 yards, but is likely to be nearer 150 
yards, unless the man wielding the club is exception¬ 
ally long on his shots. 

If the ball lands in the fairgreen and rests in such 
a position as to make the next shot also a clean one, 
the brassy is the next weapon that will be chosen. 
This club is protected on its lower surface with brass, 
hence its name. It is planned for rougher usage than 
the driver which it greatly resembles, having the 
same long wooden shaft and heavy head. The play¬ 
ing surface of this club is usually set at a little more 
of an angle than the driver, in order to get under the 
ball and lift it off of the flat playing surface. Quite 
as long distances can be made with the brassy as with 
the driver. In fact, if the distance of the hole from 
the tee is 300 yards, it is not wise to follow a good 
drive with a -brassy shot, as the player is liable to 
overplay his hole. 

A third wooden club which is springing into popu- 

246 


Golf 


larity is the spoon. This is shafted and built along 
the same lines as the brassy, but has the driving face 
of the head scooped out, so as to loft the ball. It is 
useful in uncertain lies where the player wants to be 
assured of getting his ball well up into the air, and 
also desires distance. 

Where the distance does not admit of the brassy or 
spoon, any one of two or three iron clubs may be 
used, depending upon the distance to go and the lay 
of the land. The three most popular iron clubs for 
mid-field work are the cleek, the mid-iron, and the 
mashie. 

The cleek proper is a club of medium length and 
weight, with thin iron blade or face. It is used in 
preference to the wooden clubs when the lie is not 
good, its sharp edge and tilting face being then use¬ 
ful. It is also used for short strokes when approach¬ 
ing the green. 

The mid-iron is somewhat heavier than the cleek, 
and is used for distance work, especially over rough 
or uneven courses. Properly used, this can become 
one of the most serviceable of clubs, combining dis¬ 
tance with lift, in every variety of lie. 

The mashie may be said to be a hybrid growth. 
But a few years back it was almost unknown. Now 
its use is universal. Some few golfers, when they 
formerly wished to pitch the ball unusually dead, 
were in the habit of using the niblick. But since the 
small surface of the blade of the niblick-head de- 

247 


Sports and Games 

manded almost greater accuracy of striking than the 
human hand and eye could master, it occurred to 
some bold spirit to invent a modification—a com¬ 
promise between niblick and mid-iron—which, 
while allowing a little more scope for human error, 
should yet preserve the faculty of pitching the ball 
“dead.” Thus was the mashie evolved—an inter¬ 
mediate type called into being by conditions which 
specially favored its existence. 

Many golfers now carry a mashie to the entire 
exclusion of the niblick; yet, though it is doubtful 
whether in the multitude of golf clubs there be 
wisdom, it is questionable if it is wise to discard the 
niblick altogether. Your mashie, for approaching 
purposes, should be essentially a weapon of balance, 
while your niblick, for digging purposes, should be 
essentially a weapon of weight. Your niblick should 
be heavy, to dig through obstacles; your mashie 
should be comparatively light, to pitch the ball 
“dead.” 

The lofter, like the niblick, is used in cases of 
extreme peril, where bunkers and hazards of other 
nature confront the unwary player. The face of the 
I iter is set back at a more extreme angle than the 
foregoing clubs and it is built especially for lofting 
a ball out of a hole or over an obstacle. It is also 
used in appcaching a green, as its ball has a ten¬ 
dency to fall dead, or without rolling. The lofter 
is still more tilted in angle, besides being short and 

248 
















































Golf 

rounded. It is the court of last resort in extreme 
difficulties. 

Finally, the last club to be used is the putter — 
maker and breaker of many a hard-fought field. 
This is the shortest of all clubs, as the player is sup¬ 
posed to be standing directly over the ball, and is 
used much like a croquet mallet. Its field of useful¬ 
ness is restricted to the green immediately around the 
hole, a sward free from obstructions where close ac¬ 
curacy rather than distance is desired. 

SUGGESTIONS TO PLAYERS 

As in every other game there is a right and a 
wrong way of doing things. Probably there are more 
wrong ways of playing golf than in all other games 
altogether—because of the variety of the clubs and 
the different playing conditions. No two courses are 
alike and no two lies alike. Therefore, what would 
be the correct way to play one shot might be totally 
wrong for the next one. The player, however, can 
learn certain definite things, which go to make up 
what is known as golf “form,” without which he is 
liable to remain a hopeless duffer. 

On the drive or opening stroke for each hole the 
idea is to gain both distance and direction. A full 
free swing is required with a definite carry through 
behind it. First, the driver should see to his stance. 
This is a golf term alluding to the position of the 
feet and the whole posture of the body. Here are 

249 



Sports and Games 

some concise hints for the use of both the driver and 
the brassy: 

Stance. Stand far enough from the ball so that the 
face of the club rests against the ball, while the other 
end of the shaft touches the left knee. Toes are 
turned outward. 

Upward Swing. Club head is raised slowly, but 
not too straight, and its speed is gradually increased. 
Elbows are kept well in, the left wrist turning in¬ 
ward. The body must be held firm, the head still, 
and the eye fixed upon the ball. Weight goes over to 
the right leg, the left heel being raised. 

End of Stroke. Do not jerk. Arms must be kept 
well down, and head remains quiet. Weight of body 
is thrown from right leg to left, until the right heel 
is raised and the left leg stiffens. After the stroke 
the arms follow the direction of the ball and the 
body swings forward. 

Slicing is caused by standing too near, or by draw¬ 
ing in the arms. 

Pulling is caused by loosening the grip of the left 
hand, or by allowing the head of the club to turn 
partly over. 

To give oneself the best possible chance of hitting 
the ball surely and swiftly, to combine the far and 
the sure, the clubhead wants to be traveling, when it 
meets the ball, in the direction in which it is intended 
the ball should go; and it is exceedingly obvious that 
the longer the clubhead is so traveling, the longer 

250 


Golf 


will be the space—the longer the segment of that 
rough circle which it describes—in which it is pos¬ 
sible for it to meet the ball correctly. And this re¬ 
quires to be combined with sufficient speed. It may, 
therefore, be stated that the aim of the ideal golf 
swing is a combination of the utmost possible speed 
in conjunction with the utmost possible length of 
movement of the clubhead in the desired line of 
flight of the ball. 

Certain points may be noted about the grip, but 
it is a mistake, in striving after a prescribed fashion, 
to work the hands into a position of discomfort. In 
the first place, a few inches of the shaft should be 
allowed to project above the left hand, for thus a 
greater command over the club is acquired. Sec¬ 
ondly, since the club has to turn in the right hand at 
a certain point in the swing, it should be held firmly 
in the fingers, rather than in the palm, with that 
hand. In the left hand it should be held firmly, as 
this hand is to communicate the chief power of the 
swing. The right is more for guidance and control. 
The two hands should be as close together as conveni¬ 
ently possible. 

While the player is getting set and giving his club 
two or three preliminary “waggles” he must not for¬ 
get one cardinal rule, “Keep your eye on the ball.” 
The golfer will have this constantly dinned into his 
ears from the time he misses his first drive through 
his entire golfing career, and he will probably forget 

251 


Sports and Games 

it quite as consistently. To take the eye away for the 
fraction of a second means the risk of topping the 
stroke or missing the ball altogether. Not until the 
club has come back on its downward swing, collided 
with the ball, and the latter swung off into space 
with that clean “smack” which is dear to every 
golfer’s heart, can the driver afford to take his glance 
away for the fraction of a second. 

Some golfers are so anxious to see where their ball 
is going that they look up and away before the club 
has actually struck the ball. Leave it to your caddie 
or your partner to watch the ball on its flight, if 
necessary. Even after you have struck the ball there 
will be plenty of time to glance up and see where it 
is heading, but do not let this phase of the matter in¬ 
terest you, so long as the ball and the club have not 
actually met. 

Once out in the field any number of trick lies may 
greet you. These require iron clubs or different 
faces and types, consequently different styles of shots. 
No amount of book rules can guide you under such 
conditions, and the soundest advice is to follow first 
behind experienced players watching their handling 
of difficult situations, and later playing around for 
yourself with some friend who is familiar with both 
the game and the course. 

For example, if the ball has come to rest in a slight 
hollow in the ground, you would perhaps want to 
use the lofter, that is, the iron club with the lofted 

252 


Golf 


face, to get it out. The same club may be necessary 
in a sand lie, such as in traps or behind bunkers, 
which are often encountered in golf courses. This 
club gets you out of trouble, but gives little distance. 

The following is a summary of the bad lies you 
will encounter, with a general hint as to how to play 
them. 

1. When the ball is in a depression, swing evenly 
downwards so as to nip in between edge of cup and 
ball. Do not think about the “jerk.” 

2. With obstruction in front, play to slice or lift 
the ball. 

3. With slope in front, swing, with spooned club, 
over the surface of the ground, as if it were level. 

4. Ball lying above, facing you, swing freely, with 
right hand gripping lightly. 

5. ^Ball lying below, away from you, swing quietly. 

The advice that we have given applies equally to 

wooden clubs and to full shots with cleeks and irons, 
and should your natural tendency be to “jerk” the 
ball with the iron clubs, it will make no matter. 

APPROACHING SHOTS 

As the player approaches the putting green, a dif¬ 
ferent style of play is needed from the long full swing 
of the drive or brassy shot; likewise, a different class 
of shot from that which is simply an iron shot to get 
him out of difficulties. Let us suppose that a player 
has approached to within 150 yards or less of the 

253 


Sports and Games 

green. His object now is to play his ball in one shot 
on to the green, but not to overrun it. In other words, 
he wishes to lift his ball in the air and drop it in such 
a way that it will lie “dead” on the green or without 
rolling more than a few feet. The favorite club for 
this purpose is the mashie, and we give below a sum¬ 
mary of the improved style in playing the mashie 
approach shot: 

Stance. The feet are placed nearer each other and 
nearer the ball than in the wooden-club strokes. The 
right foot is somewhat advanced, and the left heel 
is directly opposite the ball. 

Upward Swing. Body is more relaxed than for¬ 
merly, the elbows bend more, and the knees relax. 
Weight of body is on right leg, but even that knee 
is slightly bent. Head remains quiet, and eye is fixed 
on a point just behind the ball. 

End of Stroke. Play is made more delicately and 
more accurately than the drive. Weight is trans¬ 
ferred from one leg to the other, each heel in turn 
being raised. Finish with arms and body to the 
front. 

To loft the ball extremely, it is necessary to strike 
just behind the ball so as to cut the turf slightly. 
This has a tendency to make the ball alight “dead”— 
or nearly so. 

The approach shot when properly made has both 
distance and carry, and also has either a cut or back 
spin, which will prevent the ball from continuing to 

2 54 


Golf 


roll after it has struck the ground. Some players do 
not handle their approach shots in this manner, but 
prefer to run up, that is, to allow every ball to strike 
the ground a few yards away from the green and 
trickle up to it. The best players, however, do not 
rely on these chance trickles. They strive to lift their 
ball cleanly through the air and deposit it at or near 
the pin, which means the cup. Oftentimes, also, 
sand pits may guard the green. 

PUTTING 

'After the ball has reached the putting-green, the 
concluding stroke or strokes for the hole is in order. 
Let us suppose that your ball has come to rest twenty 
feet away from the cup. It is your object then to 
“sifik” the ball in the cup at the next stroke, if pos¬ 
sible; and failing to leave it so close that a second 
shot will make it certain. This sounds simple enough, 
and yet how many games of golf are played with 
third shots being constantly required upon the* put¬ 
ting-green! More golf matches, little and big, have 
been settled on the putting-green than anywhere else. 
A golfer who may drive like a fiend on the long dis¬ 
tances and extricate himself from many a tight cor¬ 
ner, often lacks the delicate precision of the three- 
foot puts which will win a hole. As a matter of fact, 
a short put of three feet or less counts just as much 
on the score card as a drive of 200 yards. 

255 


Sports and Games 

Since the putter itself is the shortest of clubs, the 
player must stand well over it. The favorite method 
is to play from the right leg. The shaft is held firmly 
with an equal grip in both hands, perhaps a slightly 
stronger pressure being used on the right, the left 
hand being used more to steady the stroke. The 
shoulders are kept quiet and the arms equally so, the 
stroke being very largely with the wrists. One of 
the great secrets of the putting stroke is to do it 
quietly and cleanly and without jerking. The club 
may rest for a moment directly behind the ball with¬ 
out touching it, while the eye of the player measures 
the distance and direction. Even a foot distance re¬ 
quires care, as it is frequently missed. 

The player keeps his head down, his body quiet, 
his eye absolutely set upon the ball and the distance 
between it and the cup. Then he swings the club 
back very quietly and brings it into contact with 
the ball smoothly and evenly, with a slight carry 
through touch. It is this delicacy of touch in putting 
which makes it the most difficult stroke for many 
otherwise good golfers. The inability to judge the 
force of the stroke is another crying sin. Most 
"putters play too timidly, they stop two or three feet 
short of the cup on the long put. They forget the 
important adage, “Never up, never in.” It is better 
to overrun the cup once in a while, than to suffer con¬ 
stantly from this tendency of stopping short. Many 
a ball which has the correct direction has failed to 

256 


Golf 


win the hole simply because it lacked an ounce or 
two of propelling force. 

DEFINITIONS 

The United States Golf Association has adopted 
the following definitions of golf terms: 

(1) A “side” consists either of one player or two 
players. If one player plays against another the 
match is called a “single.” If two play against two, 
each side playing one ball, the match is called a 
“foursome.” If one play against two playing one 
ball between them, the match is called a “three¬ 
some.” 

(2) “Advice” is any counsel or suggestion which 
could influence a player in determining the line of 
play, in the choice of a club, or in the line of making 
a stroke. 

A player may ask anyone to indicate the line to 
the hole before the shot is played. A player may 
ask any one for advice on the rules of golf. 

(3) The “course” is the whole area within which 
play is permitted; more particularly it is the ground 
between the holes which is especially prepared for 
play. 

(4) The “teeing-ground” is the starting place for 
a hole. The front of each teeing-ground shall be 
indicated by two marks placed in a line as nearly as 
possible at right angles to the line of play, and the 
teeing-ground shall include a rectangular space of 

257 


Sports and Games 

the depth of two club lengths directly behind the 
line indicated by the two marks. 

(5) “Through the green” is all ground on which 
play is permitted, except hazards and the putting- 
green of the hole that is being played. 

(6) A “hazard” is any bunker, water (except 
casual water), ditch (unless excepted by local rule), 
bush, sand, path, or road. Sand blown on to the 
grass, or sprinkled on the course for its preservation, 
bare patches, sheep tracks, snow, and ice are not 
hazards. 

(7) “Casual water” is any temporary accumula¬ 
tion of water (whether caused by rainfall, flooding, 
or otherwise) which is not one of the ordinary and 
recognized hazards of the course. 

(8) “Out of bounds” is all ground on which play 
is prohibited. 

(9) A ball is “out of bounds” when the greater 
part of it lies within a prohibited area. 

(10) The “putting green” is all ground, except 
hazards, within twenty yards of the hole. 

(11) The hole shall be 4j4 inches in diameter, 
and at least 4 inches deep. If a metal lining be used, 
it shall be sunk below the lip of the hole, and its 
outer diameter shall not exceed 4*4 inches. 

(12) The term “loose impediments” denotes any 
obstruction not fixed or growing, and includes dung, 
wormcasts, molehills, snow and ice. 

(13) A “stroke” is the forward movement of the 

258 


Golf 


club made with the intention of striking the ball, or 
any contact between the head of the club and the ball, 
resulting in movement of the ball, except in case 
of a ball accidentally knocked off a tee. 

(14) A “penalty stroke” is a stroke added to the 
score of a side under certain rules, and does not affect 
the rotation of play. 

(15) The side which plays off first from a teeing 
ground is said to have the “honor.” 

(16) In “teeing,” the ball may be placed on the 
ground, or on sand or other substance, in order to 
raise it off the ground. 

(17) A player has “addressed the ball” when he 
has taken his stance and grounded his club, or, if in 
a hazard when he has taken his stance preparatory to 
striking at the ball. 

(18) A ball is “in play” as soon as the player has 
made a stroke at a teeing ground, and it remains in 
play until holed out, except when lifted in accord¬ 
ance with the rules. 

(19) A ball is deemed to “move” if it leaves its 
original position in the least degree; but it is not 
considered to “move” if it merely oscillate and come 
to rest in its original position. 

(20) A ball is “lost” if it be not found within 
five minutes after the search for it has begun. 

(21) The reckoning of strokes is kept by the terms 
—“the odd,” “two more,” “three more,” etc., and 
“one off three,” “one off two,” “the like.” The reek- 

259 



Sports and Games 

oning of holes is kept by the terms—so many “holes 
up,” or “all even,” and so many “to play.” 

A side is said to be “dormie” when it is as many 
holes up as there are holes remaining to be played. 

(22) An “umpire” decides questions of fact; a 
“referee” decides questions of golfing law. 

RULES OF GOLF 

The U. S. G. A. has issued a booklet of rules 
which are too long to quote in full in the present 
article. They may be obtained at any club or by 
application to the U. S. G. A. Spalding’s “Official 
Golf Guide” includes the booklet in separate form, 
which can be readily detached and put in the pocket. 
These rules are based upon the Royal and Ancient 
Golf Club of St. Andrews, and have been revised up 
to the present year for players in America. 

ETIQUETTE OF GOLF 

No less important than the actual rules of the 
game is what is known as Golf Etiquette. This ap¬ 
plies not only to the players but to the onlookers and 
its force is recognized wherever golf is played. The 
following hints on etiquette have been promulgated 
by the U. S. G. A.: 

No one should stand close to or directly behind 
the ball, move, or talk, when a player is making a 
stroke. 


260 


Golf 


On the putting-green no one should stand beyond 
the hole in the line of a player’s stroke. 

The player who has the honor should be allowed 
to play before his opponent tees his ball. 

No player should play from the tee until the party 
in front have played their second strokes and are out 
of range, nor play up to the putting-green till the 
party in front have holed out and moved away. 

Players who have holed out should not try their 
puts over again when other players are following. 

Players looking for a lost ball should allow other 
matches coming up to pass them; they should signal 
to the players following them to pass, and having 
given such a signal, they should not continue their 
play until these players have passed and are out of 
reach. 

Turf cut or displaced by a player should be at once 
replaced and pressed down with the foot. 

A player should carefully fill up all holes made 
by himself in a bunker. 

Players should see that their caddies do not injure 
the holes by standing close to them when the ground 
is soft. 

A player who has incurred a penalty stroke should 
intimate the fact to his opponent as soon as possible. 

Players who do not continue in the match play 
rounds of tournament should be considered to have 
forfeited any prize they may have won in the quali¬ 
fying round. 


V 


261 












ICE HOCKEY 


o 

RightWing 


© 

Left Wing 


r O k 

Goal 


O O 

Point Cover 

Point 


O 

Right 

Centre 


o 

Left Wing 


. Q + • 

Left Left 

Centre Centre 


© 

Right Wing 


# 

Right 

Centre 


© © 

over Fbint 
'oint. 


Goal 

■ • . 


264 





ICE HOCKEY 


^jpHE origin of the game of hockey is obscure. 

The war-like Romans enjoyed a peculiar game 
that was most likely the percursor of hockey. Other 
modern variants are “hurley” in Ireland and 
“shinty” in Scotland, which, in point of fact, are now 
one and the same. A leather ball stuffed with 
feathers and a bat or a club were the essential req¬ 
uisites of the game, and the object was to knock 
the ball to a certain boundary line and thereby score 
a point. 

The original Scotch “shinty” resembled it more 
closely than did “hurley” or English hockey, but sav¬ 
ored a trifle more of Canada’s winter sport, although, 
in the mildest of sarcasm, it is not probable that the 
votaries of the former sport would find anything of 
excitement in ice hockey as now played. The Scotch 
game was played on the hard, sandy sea-beach, with 
two or three hundred on each side, and their ma¬ 
terials, or rather weapons, consisted of roots of trees, 
with a hard wood knob for a ball. History does not 
relate the number of casualties that occurred in these 
matches, of which the most important took place on 
New Year’s Day, but if our imagination be given 
scope the effect is anything but pleasant. 

Only a few years ago the present form of hockey 

265 


Sports and Games 

was an unknown sport. Shinny was played on lakes, 
rivers, and canals, but only a discerning eye could 
discover in this crude, but infatuating amusement, 
the possibilities that a refined game could offer. 
Without restrictions as to the proportions of the 
stick, the nature or quality of the puck, the size of 
the playing space on the ice, or the number of the 
players, the sport could not develop into a scientific 
game until such time as it would be discussed and 
regulated by those who sought its advancement. 

To the McGill College and Victoria hockey teams 
of Montreal the game of hockey owes its present 
state on this side of the Atlantic. These two were 
the first regularly organized hockey clubs in the 
world, the former preceding the latter by a very 
short time. Previous to the formation of the above 
organizations about 1881, teams existed in Montreal 
and Quebec, but the only rule that was well defined 
was the one which demanded that every man should 
“shinny on his own side.” Do what you might, play 
on what you liked or with what you liked—and as 
long as you shinnied on your own side you were 
within the law. 

All kinds of sticks were used, long knotted roots, 
broom handles, clubs, and all kinds of skates were 
employed, from long, dangerous reachers to short, 
wooden rockers. On each particular occasion the 
captains agreed, before the game, upon the rules, so 
that the rules that governed one match might be 

266 


Ice Hockey 

null and void for another. The puck was a square 
block of wood, about two cubic inches in size, on 
which a later improvement was the bung of a barrel, 
tightly tied round with cord. 

The game was soon after introduced in the United 
States, and made rapid strides. Colleges and schools 
took an interest in it, and organized teams, schedules 
were drawn up, the public flocked to the rinks to see 
the games, with the result that today it is a most 
popular winter sport. 

Artificial rinks are now found in the principal 
cities of the country, and afford to players a great 
advantage, as there is never a scarcity of ice. They 
are opened in the autumn and remain open for 
skating until spring. Besides, being comparatively 
warm, spectators are not kept away from them, how¬ 
ever inclement the weather may be. A short time 
ago almost any Canadian team could defeat, with 
comparative ease, the best seven that could be found 
in the United States. But now a different complex¬ 
ion colors the comparison between the clubs, be¬ 
cause team work has arrived at such a high degree 
of science that our leading clubs are eligible to com¬ 
pete with the best. 

EQUIPMENT FOR HOCKEY 

For many reasons the quality and species of the 
skate is a most important consideration to a hockey 
player. 


267 


Sports and Games 

The hockey skate should be just high enough to 
prevent the plate of the sole of the boot from touch¬ 
ing the ice when turning or cutting corners, because 
a low skate is not so straining on the ankle as a high 
one. The blade should be long enough and suffi¬ 
ciently flat on the ice to admit of great speed, but 
should not project at the toe or heel so much as to 
trip the skater on any occasion, and should be curved 
slightly in front and behind in order to allow of 
quick turning. Although it should be so pointed as 
to enable a player to begin a rush by running on the 
toes, these should not have a distinct, projecting 
point, but should be so shaped that they will admit 
of this start, because a sharp projection is often the 
cause of a nasty fall and also of a dangerous cut to 
the wearer of the skates or to one of his opponents. 

A good hockey skate should be a combination of 
great strength and lightness of weight. It should 
be strong, because the thousand twistings and turn¬ 
ings of a player strain every inch of the blade, each 
plate and every rivet; it should be light because the 
lightness of the skate adds to the swiftness of the 
skater, and because a heavy skate is tiring. To refer 
again to the length of the skate, the blade should pro¬ 
ject about an inch in front of the toe of the boot and 
an inch or a little more behind the heel, and the 
width of the bottom of the blade should retain the 
same thickness from toe to heel, or rather on that 
part of blade that touches the ice when a skater 

268 


Ice Hockey 

maintains a standing position. The two ends back 
and front should taper slightly in width, becoming 
thinner toward the points. 

A player’s clothes should be light enough to be of 
no perceptible weight, and warm enough to insure 
him against catching cold. A moderately heavy 
sweater, trousers padded at the hips and knees, a 
suit of light underwear and heavy stockings are the 
necessary articles of clothing fora hockey player. 

Idats are not needed if the hair is allowed to grow 
moderately long. Many players prefer, for outdoors, 
a close-fitting knitted cap. 

Gloves, thin enough to permit the player to re¬ 
tain a firm, sure grasp of his stick, are used to pre¬ 
vent the hands from being cut on the rough ice after 
a fall. It is advisable to wear shin guards and any 
other appliances that afford protection. Unless a 
player’s ankles are weak, straps should not be used, 
because they are of no other value than to strengthen 
the ankles, which, with plenty of practice and well¬ 
fitting shoes, do not, or should not, need support. 

The hockey stick is the requisite next in impor¬ 
tance. It should be strong, light and not too flexible, 
having a long blade and handle, which will increase 
the player’s reach. It should be made of second- 
erowth ash, which is the most serviceable wood, be- 
cause it combines strength with lightness, and does 
not, like most other woods, absorb the water which 
frequently appears on the ice. When a player gets 

269 


Sports and Games 

a stick that suits him, he should carefully note its 
particular points, so that when that one breaks, he 
may secure others of the same shape. A player 
should use the stick that he himself prefers, and 
should not be guided by the choice of others, al¬ 
though, of course, he should always look for an 
improvement of his own. 

It is difficult to lay down rules regulating the 
manipulation of the stick. What there are of them 
are few and undefined. The stick should be held in 
both hands. The right hand should hold it firmly 
at the end of the handle and the left lower down, 
according to the reach of the player, because, even 
if most plays are made with both hands on the stick, 
there are times when it is necessary to use only one, 
in which case, holding the stick as above, the right 
hand is already in place without any change. 

The stick should be held in both hands, because 
in that position a man is always ready to shoot for 
the goals, or to pass the puck. Besides, he can check 
better, dodge better, resist a heavy check more easily 
and sustain his position on his skates more securely 
when he has the stick thus held upon the ice. 

Stick-handling, like confidence, coolness, strength 
and speed, is acquired by practice, and by practice 
alone. 

The more you play the sooner you will become 
an adept in the art, and the better you can handle 
your stick the more effective a player you will be, 

270 



ICE HOCKEY 

Match game played between Oxford and Cambridge teams, at St. Moritz, Switzerland. 






Ice Hockey 

because stick-handling is one of the essentials of 
the game, 

HOW TO PLAY THE GAME 

The diagram printed herewith shows the plan of 
a hockey rink and also the playing positions of the 
two competing teams. 

Each team has seven players: left center, right 
center, left wing, right wing, cover point, point, and 
goal-keeper. The game is sometimes played with 
less than this number. 

The rink must be at least 112 feet long by 58 feet 
wide. A goal is placed at each end of this rink. 
The goal posts are 6 feet apart and 4 feet high, and 
are further provided with goal nets. 

The puck is a piece of solid rubber, circular in 
shape, 1 inch thick and 3 inches in diameter. 

The game is played for two periods of 20 minutes 
or 30 minutes, with an intermission of 10 minutes. 

The game is begun by placing the puck in the 
center of the rink between the sticks of the two left 
centers. At the call to “play!” on the part of the 
referee, both centers endeavor to drive the puck 
down toward the opponents’ goal. Whichever side 
thereupon secures control, tries by successive passing 
and dribbling to shoot the puck between the enemy’s 
goal-posts. Such goals count for points in the game. 

While in play the puck may be stopped by any 
part of a player’s person, or his skates, but, it can 

271 


Sports and Games 

only be propelled toward its destination by means 
of the hockey stick. The stick must not be raised 
higher than level with the shoulder, except when 
actually striking the puck. 

When a puck has been driven off-side, or back of 
the goal line, or when a foul has been committed, 
the puck is brought back to a position 5 yards inside 
the rink lines. 

The play is necessarily fast and furious. Hockey 
is one of the liveliest of all games, and demands that 
its players should be both expert skaters and athletes. 
The objective point throughout is to send the puck 
'through the opposite goal and at the same time 
prevent a similar play on the part of the antagonist. 

A team, and each individual member of a team, 
should concentrate every idea, every thought on this 
one desire, and each play, each move should point 
to it, as the rays of the sun are converged through a 
glass to the focus. 

That play is vain which does not tend to bring a 
team, or a member of a team, to a position from 
which the desired point can be gained—a useless 
move affects the position of a team, and throws the 
players out of poise. 

The fancy play, the grandstand play, is a waste 
of energy, childish, worthless. The play that counts, 
the play that shows the science of the man who makes 
it, is the immediate execution, in the simplest man¬ 
ner, of the plan that a player conceives when he 

272 


Ice Hockey 

considers the object of his playing. In other (geo¬ 
metrical) words, the shortest distance between two 
points is a straight line, and applied to the science 
of hockey, it means that a player should take the 
shortest and quickest way of obtaining the desired 
effect, which, by analysis, is oftentimes the most 
scientific. 

When it is said that every player of a team should 
strain nerve and muscle to score a goal, the meaning 
is not that each individual member should strive to 
do the act himself, but that he should use every ef¬ 
fort to assist him to score who is in the most advan¬ 
tageous position to do so. The selfish desire on the 
part of even one man to make the point oftentimes 
entails the loss of a match. 

Although by nearing his opponents’ defence with 
the puck a player naturally approaches the position 
from which to shoot, he will invariably confuse his 
adversaries more successfully, and often secure for 
himself or his partner a much more desirable vantage 
ground, by passing the puck to the latter before 
reaching the cover-point. Indeed, if the question 
of praise be mentioned, there is often more due to 
the player who assists by a clever bit of combination 
work than to the man who scores the game. 

The secret of a team’s success is combination play, 
in other words, unselfishness. It means the giving of 
the puck to a player of one’s own side who is in a 
better position to use it than the man who first secures 

273 


Sports and Games 

the rubber. It is the science of mutual help. As in 
basketball and football, it is a “sine qua non.” The 
team that indulges most in this scientific play has the 
less hard work to do and is necessarily the freshest 
when the trying end of the match comes round, be¬ 
cause combination play minimizes the work in this 
arduous game. 

As soon as a player secures the puck he should 
first look for an opening and then size up, at a glance, 
the position of his confreres. It is, indeed, a ques¬ 
tion whether it be not more scientific, more success¬ 
ful to look first for a good opportunity to pass the 
puck to a partner; and then, if none such presents 
itself, to force a clearing. 

It happens that a fast forward can, by his own 
personal efforts, score one, two, or perhaps three 
goals, but toward the close of the game he is no 
longer able to do effective work, because his selfish 
exertions have played him out, and when necessity 
demands that because of poor assistance from his 
partners, a good man should indulge in individual 
work, such may be permissible, but the team thus 
handicapped cannot expect to win from a well- 
balanced aggregation. 

Combination in hockey is the scientific means to 
the end at which the players aim, viz., the placing of 
men of the team that makes the play in the best 
obtainable position to shoot a goal, and should be 
carried on only until that position is attained. 

274 


Ice Hockey 

It is possible to indulge even too much in com¬ 
bination work, necessary as it is on most occasions, 
and thus the virtue may be turned into a vice. It 
should not be played too freely by men in front of 
their own goals, and as it is merely a means to an 
end, an over-indulgence in it is a loss of time, of 
which hockey is too fast a game to allow. 

In close quarters the puck should be passed to a 
man’s stick, and not in a line with his skates. A 
scientific player, rushing down the ice with a partner, 
will give the puck to the latter, not in a direct line 
with him, unless they are very close together, but 
to a point somewhat in advance, so that he will have 
to skate up to get it. The advantage in this style of 
passing is that the man who is to receive the rubber 
will not have to wait for it, but may skate on at the 
same rate of speed at which he was going before 
the puck was crossed and proceed in his course with¬ 
out loss of time. 

The puck should be passed in such a manner that 
it will slide along the ice and not “lift,” because it 
is difficult to stop and secure the rubber when it 
comes flying through the air. There are times, of 
course, when a “lifted” pass is necessary, for instance, 
when the line on the ice between the passer and the 
receiver is obstructed, but otherwise the “sliding” 
pass is advisable. 

When two “wing” men play combination together 
in an attack, the puck should scarcely ever be passed 

275 


Sports and Games 

directly to each other, but should be aimed at the 
cushioned side of the rink, some distance in advance 
of the man, so that he may secure it on the rebound. 
The rink is so wide that it is difficult to pass the puck 
accurately from one side to the other, especially dur¬ 
ing a rush, so the above means is recommended. 

When three or four forwards are making a rush, 
the puck should be held by one of the centre players 
until the cover-point is reached, because in such a 
play the latter does not know to which man the rub¬ 
ber is to be passed, for it may be given to the right 
or the left wing or even to the other center player, 
but when, in an attack, a wing man has the puck, the 
cover-point knows that he must necessarily cross it 
out to the center and is prepared for the play. 

Each player should be careful to remain in his 
own position, and in order to acquire the habit of so 
doing, every man should make it a point in each 
practice, however unimportant, to cling to the par¬ 
ticular position on the team which he is intended to 
fill. It is a grievous mistake for a wing man to leave 
his position and play in the centre of the ice or on the 
side to which he does not belong, or for a center 
player or rover to wander to the wings, because as 
each man has a cover, a check, on whom, in turn he 
should bestow his attention, he gives his opponent, 
when he leaves his place, an opening that the latter 
should not and would not have if he were properly 
watched. The forwards and the defence men of an 

276 


Ice Hockey 

experienced team should know where their assistants 
are at all times. When a man strays from his own 
territory, a brilliant combination play may easily be 
lost through his absence from his proper place. 

Each player of a team should occupy his position 
so unfailingly in practice, and the team should in¬ 
dulge in combination work to such an extent, that, 
in a match, a forward ought, at times, to be able to 
slide the puck to an assistant without even having to 
look to know where the latter is located. If perfec¬ 
tion be aimed at, and it should be, the point of fol¬ 
lowing up should be so regular, so systematic, that 
this play may be successfully indulged in, because, 
with every man working in his position, like so many 
movements in a clock, a forward with the puck, in 
advance, should know without looking, where each 
of his partners follows. 

POINTS OF A GOOD PLAYER 

Coolness, in hockey parlance, is the power and 
practice of taking time to think out a move. A 
player must be cool-headed to a degree that verges 
on slowness, because, so fast a game is hockey, that 
an expert player, an experienced team, should take 
advantage of every opportunity that the changing 
plays present, and this to do, even in the quickest 
rushes, the swiftest combinations, the fiercest “mix- 
ups,” it is necessary that one should remain as cool 

as the proverbial cucumber. 

277 


Sports and Games 

As a hockey axiom, it might be said that “it is bet¬ 
ter to think more and rush less, than to rush more 
and think less.” 

The cool, collected, calculating player is worth 
more to a team than two or three of the class whose 
main object seems to be the possession of the puck for 
a “big” rush down the ice. 

If any man among your opponents is to be feared, 
let it be the one who thinks out each move, who 
makes no useless plays, who shoots for the goals only 
when there is an opening, because “such men are 
dangerous.” Many a game is lost, many a chance 
is missed by the man who will not, or cannot take 
time enough to think out a play. 

Another requisite is confidence, both in your assis¬ 
tants and in yourself. Just as that regiment whose 
soldiers rely upon one another is a better one than 
another in which the members have no confidence in 
their comrades, so, in a hockey game it is absolutely 
necessary that each player should be able to depend 
upon his confreres. 

A team should feel that it can defeat any seven 
that opposes it, and each individual man of a team 
ought to believe that, if necessary, he can pass any 
one of his adversaries. A team that goes on the ice 
thinking that defeat is probable is already beaten. 
A player who fears that he can not elude certain of 
his opponents is a factor for success for the opposing 
team. Care should be taken, however, that con- 

278 


Ice Hockey 

fidence may not be exaggerated. Over-confidence is 
a greater fault than confidence is a virtue. While 
each team should feel that it can probably defeat its 
opponents, it should also bear in mind that until the 
game is ended its own goals are in danger, and act 
accordingly. 

Pluck is essential to a man who aspires to perfec¬ 
tion in the game, and is as indispensable to him as 
it is to a football player or a soldier. The calculating 
player often saves himself by avoiding unnecessary 
dangers, but occasion demands, at times, a fast rush 
through a “bunch” of fighting players, through 
swinging, smashing sticks that, in noise and move¬ 
ments, resemble a threshing machine—a desperate 
jump, or a block of the puck, at the expense of a 
sore punishment, to score or save a single goal, and 
the risk must be run. 

The cringer, the man who waits outside of a scrim¬ 
mage until by chance the puck slides to him, the 
man who fears an opponent, is not a hockey player. 
It is, of course, scientific play on certain occasions 
to wait until the puck is shoved out of a crowd, or 
from the side, but reference is made above to the 
time when a “dive” is needed. Even if a man knows 
that an opponent is mean, unfair, this should be but 
a poor excuse to fear him, because the referee is on 
the ice for the protection of all the players. 

A hockey player must necessarily be strong physi¬ 
cally and constitutionally. If his muscles are well- 

279 


Sports and Games 

developed, but his constitution is weak, so violent a 
game as this will do him an irreparable injury. 
Hockey is so fast, so trying on a forward player, who 
is rushing continually from the opening to the clos¬ 
ing of a match, that, in order to play without hurting 
himself, he must be in perfect condition. This con¬ 
dition means both the state of his health and the 
condition of his mind and muscles. 

Training for the game of hockey is the simplest, 
perhaps, of any, and consists for the most part in 
careful practice. 

Nothing prepares a player for the opening of a 
hockey season so well as a thorough course in gym¬ 
nastics. This to do properly, it is necessary to make 
use of every appliance that the gymnasium affords 
(except the heavy weights), because the game of 
hockey calls into play every muscle that a complete 
gymnasium develops, which is attested to by the 
stiffness in every muscle after a good, hard game. 
Exercises that aid in enlarging and hardening the 
muscles in the arms, back, chest and stomach are 
specially recommended. The legs are quickly 
brought into condition by skating and walking. 

The three fundamentals of a good hockey player, 
as summed up by S. Trafford Hicks, are as follows: 

“Ability to skate on ice is the most necessary 
qualification. Nobody can play hockey unless they 
can move about rapidly on the runners with some 
stability. To play hockey does not require finesse 

280 


Ice Hockey 

on skates or a wide knowledge of the art of skating; 
but a hockey player must be able to start, stop and 
turn in a flash, with sureness of balance. 

“Next in importance to the skating comes speed. 
Hockey is a fast and furious game, where speed 
counts for everything. A player may know the game 
thoroughly, and yet, if he is not as speedy as a less 
experienced opponent, his experience will count for 
little towards scoring a goal. 

“Thirdly, the knack of handling a puck with the 
hockey is almost, if not quite, as important as the first 
two fundamentals. All three of these points are 
learned simultaneously and unconsciously by a young 
schoolboy as he strives to imitate the older fellows 
in a game of ‘shinny.’ Of course, a player is better 
off at hockey for an earlier start, just as in any game. 
Many good players have developed, however, who 
never played hockey until their college days.” 


281 


f 



FIELD HOCKEY 



284 














FIELD HOCKEY 


JP IELD, or Lawn Hockey, is the progenitor of Ice 
Hockey. This type of game is older than the 
Christian era. The Romans first played some such 
game with a stuffed leather ball, and, because of the 
bent stick used to strike the ball, it has sometimes 
been called Bandy Ball. The English played this 
game more than any other nation, and at one time it 
became such a popular sport that it was regarded as 
a public nuisance, and a law was enacted forbidding 
the game, but the law was soon repealed. A few 
years ago it was introduced into America, where it 
has met with favor in some sections, chiefly in 
schools; but it does not equal ice hockey in popu¬ 
larity. 

The field on which the game is played is a little 
smaller than a football field, it being 100 yards long 
and not more than 60 nor less than 50 yards wide. 
The longer sides are known as “side lines,” and the 
ends as “goal lines.” In the center of each goal line 
two upright posts are placed 12 feet apart, with a 
cross-bar 7 feet from the ground, which constitute 
the goals. The ball is an ordinary cricket ball. The 
stick is curved at one end and must be small enough 
to pass through a ring two inches in diameter. 

285 


Sports and Games 

There should be eleven players on each side, but 
it may be played by six, seven or nine. The accom¬ 
panying diagram shows playing positions for eleven 
men, who are known collectively as forwards, rushes, 
backs, and guards. 

At the beginning of the game and after each goal, 
the ball is put in play at the center of the field, by 
what is known as the “bully,” to be played as follows: 
one of each side shall stand facing the side line and 
shall strike the ground on his own side of the ball, 
and the stick of his opponent over the ball alternately 
three times; after which either player may strike the 
ball, and the moment the ball is touched it is in play. 
During this bully the players on either side shall 
be “on side,” i.e., between the ball and his own goal 
line. 

When the ball is put in play the “forwards” rush 
down the field on their opponents’ territory, and the 
“rushes,” by a system of diagonal passing, advance 
the ball past the rush line of their opponents, and 
endeavor to get the ball into the hands of the “for¬ 
wards,” who should be inside or near the “striking 
circle.” The “striking circle” is made by drawing 
a line twelve feet long in front of each goal, parallel 
to the goal line, and fifteen yards from it. The ends 
of the line are curved round to the goal lines, using 
each post as the centre of the arc. This circle is the 
only place from which a goal may be scored. 

The forwards now having possession of the ball, 

286 


Field Hockey 

all the rushes assist to pass the ball through the goal, 
if possible, which, if accomplished, counts one point 
for them. The advance guards should fall back a 
few paces behind the line of scrimmage to return the 
ball, if the opponents get it past the other rushes. 
The guard lies well back, and, as his name indicates, 
his principal duty is to check any assault made on his 
goal. He should never advance past the center of 
the field, and always hold the same relative position. 
He must be a sure hit, and never allow the ball to 
pass him. He should also be able to make accurate 
long hits. 

It must be remembered that no definite place can 
be assigned each player at all times of the game, as 
the position will vary with the strength of the oppos¬ 
ing team, or the individual members, the speed of 
the men, etc.; but each man on the team should hold, 
as far as possible, his own relative position, which 
will enable the other members of his team to pass 
the ball to him without taking time, which is valu¬ 
able, to locate him. This will simplify matters, and 
teamwork thus be made stronger and the play more 
effective. 

The goal tend stands firm, never neglecting the 
space allotted to him between the goal posts, and 
when the ball is forced to him, he kicks the ball (he 
being the only person on the team allowed to kick 
the ball), or strikes it, placing it to one side so as to 
prevent the ball from passing the goal. In no case 

287 


Sports and Games 

when the ball is in the striking circle should it be 
allowed to remain in front of the goal; the defenders 
must use their skill and agility and put it off to one 
side. 

No player is allowed to raise his stick above his 
shoulders at any time when striking at the ball, and 
the stroke must always be from right to left. The 
ball may be stopped by any part of the person, but 
advanced by the stick only (except in case of goal 
tend). Hooking sticks is allowable when within 
striking distance of the ball. Great skill may be 
developed in hooking sticks, e.g., when an opponent 
has the advantage and is about to have a strong hit, 
one is often able to hook his stick and allow another 
of his own side to take the ball. 

Play with the back of the stick is not allowable. 
If during any part of the game, the ball passes the 
side line, it must be rolled, not thrown back, from 
the spot where it crossed the line, by one of the op¬ 
posite side to that of the player who last touched the 
ball. It may be rolled any way except forward. 

A “free hit“ shall be given to opposite side when 
any player shall transgress any of the following 
rules: 

1. Raise stick above shoulders during stroke. 

2. Kicking ball (except goal tend). 

3. Off-side play, i.e., when a player hits the ball 
and another player of the same side is nearer his 
opponent’s goal line than three of his opponents. 

288 



FIELD HOCKEY 

Spirited match between two school girl teams, at Philadelphia 



Field Hockey 

4. Playing with back of stick. 

5. Striking ball other than from right to left. 

6. Pushing, tripping, collaring, kicking, charging, 
or any unnecessary rough play. 

7. Fouling, i.e., crossing a man from left to right 
when he is about to strike the ball. 

On a free hit no player of the offending side shall 
be within five yards of spot where the hit is made, 
and the striker must not touch the ball again until 
it has been touched by another player. 

When the defending side transgresses any of the 
above rules (except Nos. 1 and 5), inside of the strik¬ 
ing circle, a “penalty bully” shall be given, at which 
time all players, except the offender and one from 
the other side, shall be outside of striking circle, and 
the two shall bully as at the centre, only no other 
player may interfere until a goal has been scored or 
the ball passes outside of striking circle. In the 
event of the latter, the ball is again in play for all 
the players. 

Breaking rules Nos. 1 and 5 by defendants inside 
of striking circle, a “bully” only may be given. 

When the ball passes the goal line outside of goal, 
by the stroke or kick of defendants, a “free hit” shall 
be given from the corner where the side and goal 
lines meet; and, during this hit, all of the defending 
side shall be back of goal line, and the attacking side 
outside of striking circle. If the attacking side puts 
the ball over the goal line outside of goal, it shall be 

289 


Sports and Games 

a “bully” at the twenty-five-yard line, to be played 
the same as the bully at the center. 

The time of the game is two thirty-five minute 
halves, with ten minutes’ intermission, subject to 
change if both sides are agreed. 


290 


LAWN BOWLS 


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DRAWING 
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292 


100 Feet from Mat to Distant Jack 




























LAWN BOWLS 


T AWN BOWLS is a game which, while easy to 
learn, affords ample scope for the employment 
of considerable strategic skill in its playing; while 
for enjoyable excitement, alike to the spectator and 
the player, in a spirited contest between expert ex¬ 
emplars of the game, it is far ahead of croquet which 
it remotely resembles. 

While bowls is a comparatively recent game in 
the United States, it has long been a prime favorite 
in Scotland and is also played in other European 
countries. The origin of the game is uncertain, but 
it is believed to have existed in some form or another 
in ancient times. A game something like this was 
played both in Greece and Rome. The Egyptians 
and Persians also had a game where the ball was 
thrown or delivered by hand at an object in the court. 
The name is probably derived from the old English 
word bowle or the French word boule. 

In colonial times, a game of bowling was played 
in New York, which had been learned from the 
Dutch ancestors of the founders of that city. We 
remember reading in Irving’s Rip Van Winkle of 
how Henry Hudson and his ghostly crew indulged 
in such a game in the Catskill Mountains, and the 
peals of thunder were said to be the noise made by 

293 


Sports and Games 

the balls rolling and striking the pins. The New 
Yorkers themselves used to play at “bowling on the 
green” down on a green sward near the Battery; and 
the name “Bowling Green” is perpetuated to this day 
for that locality. This early game of bowling was 
the origin of ten-pins which soon after became an 
indoor sport. (See Bowling.) 

Lawn bowls, which as its name implies, is played 
only on the turf or ground, does not involve the use 
of pins as marks or objects, but is played only with 
balls. It is similar in principle to the old Scotch 
game of curling, also to shuffleboard and to quoits. 
In bowls, the “jack” is the center of attraction for 
the bowler, as the “tee” is to the curler, or the “pin” 
to the quoiter. The player aims to bowl his ball as 
near to the jack as it can safely lie, while the curler 
slides his curling stone as near as possible to the tee 
or center of the circle^ and the quoit player strives 
to ring the pin with his quoit. It requires great 
muscular strength to engage in curling or quoiting, 
but in bowls strategic skill rather than mere strength 
comes in play. 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

The directions for playing the game are as fol¬ 
lows: A small ball, perfectly round, and called the 
“jack,” is placed on the ground. The bowlers—each 
using two balls which are numbered to distinguish 
them from each other—take up their positions at a 

294 


Lawn Bowls 


certain distance from the jack, and each in turn bowls 
toward it, he whose ball comes nearest counting one. 
When there are more than two players, sides are 
formed, the balls being played alternately, and the 
side that lands a ball nearest the jack counts one 
point. The number of points necessary to win the 
game varies, but is generally fixed at twenty. When 
only two play they may stand side by side to deliver 
their balls; when there are several on a side the usual 
plan is to bowl from opposite ends of the green, the 
jack being placed in the middle. 

Where there are four players, the first one is called 
the Lead; the second, Second; the third, Third; and 
fourth Skip or Driver. The playing green should 
be not less than forty yards square, and should 
have a smooth level surface. The ground is bounded 
by a ditch 6 inches deep and 18 inches in width. 
The playing space is sub-divided into spaces called 
rinks, each not less than 19 nor more than 21 feet 
in width. 

The balls which are used are of lignum vitae and 
are not exactly round, but are made with a bias. 

The object ball at which the playing balls are 
hurled is called a “jack” or “kitty.” This is a small 
white ball about 2j4 inches in diameter. 

RULES OF THE GAME 

The following are abridged from the official rules 
adopted by the Scottish Bowling Association, which 

295 


Sports and Games 

are generally recognized among bowlers in this 
country: 

Rinks or Divisions of the Green 

The green shall be divided into spaces called 
rinks, not less than 19 nor more than 21 feet in width, 
numbered consecutively, the center of each rink 
being marked on the bank at each end by a pin or 
other device, and the four corners of the rink by 
pins driven into the ditch. The side boundary of 
the rink shall stretch from bank to bank. 

Bowls and Jack 

No bowl shall exceed \b l / 2 inches in circum¬ 
ference, nor 3^2 pounds in weight, nor have a less 
bias than the standard bowl. 

Markers. In single-handed tournaments one 
marker only shall act in each game. The marker 
may answer queries as to position of bowls and their 
distance from the jack, but shall not give directions 
to, nor consult with, either player as to the play. 
Markers shall be appointed by the directors of the 
tournament, local secretaries, or umpires, whom 
failing, by the competitors themselves. 

The jack shall be about iy 2 inches in diameter. 

Conditions of a Game 

1. A game may consist of any number of shots or 
heads, or may be played for any length of time, as 
previously agreed upon. 

296 


Lawn Bowls 


2. When a match consists of more than one risk 
on each side, the total scores of the respective parties 
shall decide the contest. 

3. When a game consists of a stated number of 
heads, and there is only one rink on each side, should 
it be found when the given number of heads has been 
played that the scores are equal, one extra head shall 
be played so as to decide the contest, and should the 
extra head result again in a tie, one more shall be 
played. 

Rink or Team of Players 

1. A rink or team shall consist of four players, 
each playing two balls, and called respectively, ac¬ 
cording to the order in which they play, leader or 
lead, second player, third player, and skip or driver. 
Unless otherwise mutually agreed upon, it shall be 
determined by tossing or by playing a trial head, 
which party is to play first, the winner of the toss or 
the head to have the choice. In all subsequent heads 
the party which won the previous head play shall 
play first. The leaders play their two bowls alter¬ 
nately, and so on, each pair of players in succession 
to the end. The order of playing shall not be 
changed after the first head has been played. No one 
shall play until his opponent’s bowl has ceased to 
run; a bowl so played may be stopped, and sent back 
to be played over again. 

2. A bowl played by mistake shall be replaced by 
the player’s own bowl. 


297 


Sports and Games 

3. When a player has played before his turn, the 
opponents may stop the bowl in its course, or allow 
it to remain when it comes to rest, or cause it to be 
played over again in its proper order. If it has 
moved either jack or bowls, the opponents shall have 
the power to cause the end to be begun anew. 

4. No player shall change his bowls during the 
game, except with the consent of the opposing party. 

5. If less than three players appear on either side, 
the game, so far as that rink is concerned, shall not 
proceed, and the rink with which this occurs shall 
be held as having failed to appear, and shall forfeit 
the game. Should such forfeiture take place where 
more rinks than one from each club are concerned, 
and where the aggregate or average scores are to 
decide the contest, the scores of the remaining rinks 
only shall be counted, but such average shall, as a 
penalty in the case of the defaulting club, be arrived 
at by dividing the aggregate score by the number 
of rinks which should have played, and not, as in 
the case of the other club, by a number actually en¬ 
gaged in the game. 

Skips or Drivers 

1. The skips shall have sole charge of their re¬ 
spective rinks, and their instructions must be obeyed 
by the other players. 

2. The skip shall have the control of the play, but 

298 


Lawn Bowls 


he may delegate this duty at any time to a substitute, 
who is usually the third player. 

3. As soon as a bowl is greened, the director must 
retire behind the jack. 

4. The players not engaged must stand jack-high, 
or behind the mat-line. 

5. The last player should remove the mat to the 
bank. 

6. The two skips shall be judges of all disputed 
points, and when they agree, their decision shall be 
final; if they cannot agree, the point shall be decided 
by the umpire previously appointed, whom failing, 
by a neutral person mutually chosen. 

The Cloth or Mat 

1. Each player, when playing, shall stand with at 
least one foot on the mat. 

2. The mat shall, at the first head, be placed by 
the leader of the party which is to play first, and in 
every subsequent head by the leader of the party 
which lost the previous head; but it shall be in the 
option of the winner of any head to have the mat 
laid at the place where the jack lay, or between it 
and any point backward not less than one yard from 
the ditch, the mat in any case being placed in the 
center of the rink. In starting play, or when the 
jack at the finish of a head lies in the ditch, or less 
than one yard from it, the mat shall be placed for¬ 
ward to about that distance. The mat shall not be 

299 


Sports and Games 

moved till the head is finished, but if moved by acci¬ 
dent or inadvertently, it shall be replaced as near 
its original position as possible. It is recommended 
that the size of the mat be 22 by 14 inches or 
thereabouts. 


Throwing the Jack 

1. The leader of the party which is to play first 
shall throw the jack. 

2. If the jack run into the ditch at the first throw 
in a game, it shall be placed 2 yards from it. If it 
be thrown into the ditch at any subsequent head, the 
opposing party shall throw it anew, but shall not 
play first. When thrown less than 2 yards from 
the ditch, the jack should be moved out to that dis¬ 
tance. 

3. The jack shall be thrown not less than 25 yards 
from the mat, and if it run to one side it shall be 
moved straight across and placed in the line of the 
pins numbering the rinks. If it be thrown less than 
25 yards, it shall be treated according to the rule 
applicable to a jack thrown into the ditch after the 
first head. 

4. If none of the foregoing rules have been trans¬ 
gressed, the jack shall be played to wherever it has 
been thrown; or, if moved, it must be by mutual con¬ 
sent of parties. 

5. After having been played to, it shall not be 
touched or interfered with in any manner otherwise 

300 


Lawn Bowls 


than by the effects of the play, until the result of the 
head has been determined. 

Movement of the Jack and the Bowls 

If the jack be driven into the ditch, within the 
limits of the rink, its place shall be accurately 
marked, but it shall not be removed from its place 
either on to the green or elsewhere except by a 
toucher. Should it be driven beyond the limits of 
the rink, that is to say, over the bank, or past the side 
boundary of the rink by a bowl in play, it shall be 
counted dead; but if moved by a bowl out of play, it 
shall be restored to its place. 

Should the jack run against the bank or a bowl 
in the ditch and rebound on to the green, or after 
being played into the ditch it be so operated upon 
by a toucher as to find its way again to the green, it 
shall be played to in the same manner as if it had 
never been moved. But a bowl similarly rebounding 
shall, unless it be a toucher, be counted dead, and any 
bowl or jack moved thereby shall be put back to its 
former position. 

The term “burned” is applied to a jack or bowl 
which has been interfered with or displaced, other¬ 
wise than by a bowl in play. (See Rules.) 

Touchers 

1. A bowl which touches the jack during its origi¬ 
nal course on the green, although previously it may 

301 


Sports and Games 

have also touched one or more bowls, is called a 
toucher, and counts in the game wherever it rests 
if on the rink, but should a bowl, after it has ceased 
running, fall over and touch the jack, after another 
bowl has been delivered, it is not to be accounted a 
toucher. No bowl can in any circumstances become 
a toucher when the jack is in the ditch. 

2. If a toucher run into the ditch when played, 
or be driven into the ditch during the course of the 
subsequent play, the place where it rests shall be 
marked, but its position shall not be altered except 
by the action of another toucher or the jack. 

3. A toucher must be distinguished by a chalk or 
other distinct mark. Unless it be marked before the 
second succeeding bowl is delivered, it is not to be 
accounted a toucher. If the mark be not removed 
from the bowl before it is played in the succeeding 
head, it may be regarded as a burned bowl, and be 
removed to the bank. 

4. If a bowl be moved outwards from the jack 
while being marked, it must remain as it is; but if 
moved towards the jack it must be restored to its 
original position. 

5. Touchers may act on the jack or touchers in 
the ditch. 

Ditchers 

1. A bowl which does not touch the jack in its 
original course on the green, and runs against the 

302 


Lawn Bowls 


bank or into the ditch, or is driven into the ditch by 
the effects of the play, is called a ditcher, and must 
be immediately removed to the bank. 

2. Should a ditcher under any circumstances re¬ 
turn to the green, it must be placed on the bank. 

Possession of the Rink 

1. As soon as each bowl stops running, the pos¬ 
session of the rink is transferred to the other party, 
time being allowed for marking a toucher. 

2. The party in possession of the rink for the time 
being must not be disturbed or annoyed by their 
opponents. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN THE GAME 

Rink. A term applicable not only to the space 
marked out on the field of play as the green, but also 
to the quartet of contesting players on each side. 

Jack. The object ball in the game. It consists of 
a round ball, not less than 2^4 inches in diameter. 
It is made of potter’s clay, hardened and enamelled. 

Cloth. The base from which the player delivers 
the ball to the field, and on which the player must 
have one foot when the ball leaves his hand. 

Bowls. The balls used in play: they number 
eight in a full rink, exclusive of the jack used on 
each side; the total number of balls on each side 
used in a full game being eight, making a total of 
sixteen balls and two jacks. 

303 


Sports and Games 

Skip or Driver . The captain of the team who 
plays last in order. 

Leader. The first player in the game; followed 
by the “second” and “third” players and the “skip.” 

Bias. A term applicable to the formation of balls 1 
which are made not strictly round, but more or less 
oval; the bias given the ball by its peculiar form 
being intended to curve it in its direction to the right 
or left. 

Jack Burned. A technical term applied to a ball 
which has been interfered with or displaced by any¬ 
thing except by a ball in play. 

Throwing the Jack. No ball in lawn bowls is, 
strictly speaking, “thrown,” but only bowled or 
rolled along the green. 

Green. A term used to describe the field of play, 
on which either one or more rinks are laid out. 

Ditch. The gutter or ditch which marks the 
boundary of the green. 

Ditcher. A ball which rolls off the field of play 
into the surrounding ditch. 

Toucher. A bowled ball which touches the jack. 
If the bowled ball drives a resting ball so that it 
touches the jack, such ball also becomes a toucher. 

Rest. Said of a bowled ball when it stops rolling. 

End or Head. The innings of a game; that is, 
after the quartet of players finish playing on each 
side. 

Fore and Back Hand. For all right-handed play- 

304 


Lawn Bowls 


ers the “fore” hand is on the right of the player, and 
the “back” hand is on the left. 

Footer. An old term used to indicate the square 
of cloth or mat on which each player places his pivot 
foot in delivering the ball to the jack. 

Guarding. After the jack has been thrown by 
the leader, and the second player has rolled his ball 
to the jack, it is the point of play to guard the rested 
ball near the jack by rolling his own ball in front of 
it as a protection from its being driven out of its 
favorable position by the ball from an adversary. 

Draw. To roll a ball to the mark where the skip 
desires it to lie. 

Block a Ball. To roll the ball so that it may lie 
as an obstacle to the played ball of his succeeding 
opponent. 

Rub and Set. Terms applicable to a ball which 
caroms off a played ball, and rests nearer the jack 
after caroming. 

Point or Shot. To be credited to each player 
whose ball rests nearer the jack than any of the balls 
of the opposite side. 

Overman. The title of a referee called in to set¬ 
tle a disputed point in which the umpires fail to 
agree. 

Greened Ball. A ball that has been rolled to a 
resting place. 

Jack High. A position which outsiders at a match 
must occupy; that is, they must stand back of the 

305 


Sports and Games 

line of the mat, cloth, or standpoint of the player 
who delivers the ball. 

Mat. The cloth on which the player places his 
foot when he first plays the ball. It is another term 
used to designate the “cloth” or “footer.” Its size 
is 22 by 14 inches. 

Dead Ball. A ball is regarded as dead the mo¬ 
ment it ceases to roll on the field. Also if it be rolled 
beyond the limit of the rinks. 

Innings. The playing of two balls — after the 
jacks have been played—by each of the contestants 
of each side. The term “head” is used in place of 
the word inning by old players. 

Running Ball. A rolling ball. 

Shot. The point made by the ball which lies 
nearest the jack at the close of the head or innings. 


\ 


306 


POLO 


Two sides guarded by abarrier IQincheshigh 


ZOO Yards 


Goal 

• • 


Back 


Halfback 


Forward 


Forward 


Forward 


Forward 


Halfback 


Back 


Goal 

_ 


308 


320 Yards 











POLO 


* I V HE history of polo is veiled in obscurity. From 
the earliest days of civilization we find records 
of games where a mallet is used to drive the ball 
towards certain goals. The Persians were among 
the first to adapt this sport to horseback, but this is 
not strange in view of the fact that the Persians were 
fond of riding and took great pride in their trained 
horses. It is believed that other Eastern countries 
where horsemanship was brought to a fine art played 
similar games. Traces of the game are extant in 
India, Japan, and China, extending back for a period 
before the time of Christ. 

In China, there is definite record of such a game 
about the sixth century A.D., in which many of the 
aspects of the modern pastime may be traced. In 
fact, so simple is the origin of the game that it is not 
surprising to find it in many countries where good 
horsemanship was the rule rather than the excep¬ 
tion. A Japanese game which originated in feudal 
times still persists under the name of dakiu or ball 
match. Ancient India played a somewhat similar 
game, and it is thought that the game was introduced 
into this country from Persia, thence passing on still 
further east. The East Indians played the game 

309 


Sports and Games 

with very little modification for several centuries, 
and it is still found in that country among the better 
class and the military. 

When India came under English rule, the English 
army officers soon adopted this outdoor sport. They 
took it back to England with them where it speedily 
found favor among horsemen. It was played by the 
10th Regiment of Hussars in 1869. Several clubs 
were established and by the year 1877 definite rules 
were formulated and a championship cup estab¬ 
lished. These rules divided the game into periods 
of ten minutes of play with intervals of two minutes 
allowed at the end of each period for changing 
ponies and five minutes at the half. The height of 
the ponies was fixed at 14.2 hands and all ponies were 
officially measured and registered before being al¬ 
lowed upon the ground. Penalties for off-side play, 
fouls, etc., were also fixed. 

In America, the game was of slow growth, be¬ 
cause of the fact that an expensive equipment was 
needed and we did not have an extensive military 
establishment to support it. It was considered a 
“gentleman’s game,” as it could be played only by 
men of means who could maintain the stables that 
it required. Later on, it was introduced into acad¬ 
emies and colleges, especially where a feature was 
made of riding. Today it still occupies pretty much 
this position in American sports. It is not generally 
played by the masses, but is in favor with certain 

310 


Polo 


private clubs and may be found at various large 
colleges where a string of horses is kept. 

The game, while exciting, does not arouse the 
wide applause of the masses, such as may be found 
at baseball or football, or even in our larger tennis 
matches. It is a sport for the quiet appreciation of 
those who can really discern the fine points of the 
game and recognize both good horsemanship and 
good generalship. 

Added interest has been given to polo by the in¬ 
ternational matches which have been played between 
big teams of the United States and those of other 
countries. These matches began back in 1886, when 
a team from the Hurlingham Club, England, visited 
this country and easily captured our national cup. 
In 1900 and at intervals thereafter, America sent 
teams to England which were defeated, until the 
year 1909, when the team under Mr. Harry Payne 
Whitney’s leadership regained the trophy, which 
was held by us until 1914, when England won again. 
There was a lapse in the sport due to the World 
War. Contests were resumed in 1921, when Amer¬ 
ica regained the cup. 

A feature of the 1922 season was the visit of the 
Argentine players who captured the cup from the 
United States, and also defeated England. 


3 11 


Sports and Games 


IMPLEMENTS OF THE GAME 

The first requisite of the polo player is, of course, 
his mount. The ponies are a special breed, the best 
ones having an Arabian strain. They are wiry, 
tough, active and intelligent beasts who speedily 
learn to follow their master’s slightest motion; in 
fact, the best of them seem to know the playing points 
of the game itself. They are limited by law to a 
height of 14.2 hands. 

The player is equipped with a long mallet, the 
handle of which permits him to strike an object on 
the ground without leaning very far out of his saddle. 
The mallet head is l]/ 2 to 8% inches long. It may 
be either of uniform diameter or cigar shape. Eng¬ 
lish players generally prefer the former while 
American players incline to the latter type of head. 
The stick may be of any length, but is usually 4 or 
4^ feet long. The grip is wound with tape or 
leather, and a light strap attaches it to the wrist. 

The ball is made of willow root, is 3% inches in 
diameter, and its weight must not exceed 5 ounces. 

The goal-posts, which are set eight yards apart, 
are made of some light material which will avoid 
injury to the player in a collision. They are usually 
made of light wood or papier mache. The two goals 
are not less than 250 yards apart. 

The dimensions of a polo ground vary in different 
clubs, depending upon the tract of land at their dis- 

312 


Polo 


posal and the contour of the country. Where pos¬ 
sible, it should be 320 yards in length and from 160 
to 200 yards in width. It is guarded on the sides but 
not on the ends by a white board 10 inches high. 

HOW TO PLAY THE GAME 

Any number of players may take part in a prac¬ 
tice game. In championship contests there are four 
men, all of whom are skilled horsemen. The two 
captains agree upon a referee, timer, and scorer. 

The American rules provide for four periods of 
play of IS minutes each. Two minutes’ rest is al¬ 
lowed after each goal secured, and 7 minutes between 
periods. In the British and Canadian rules, the 
game lasts for one hour actual playing time, divided 
into 6 periods of 10 minutes each. 

At the beginning of play the referee tosses the 
ball into the center of the field and between the lines 
of opposing players who are set waiting for it. Both 
sides have equal opportunity to hit ft, and the play 
continues until a goal is made, or the ball goes out 
of bounds, or a period ends. If the ball is driven 
out at the end lines, the defending side may knock 
it in again, and it is then placed on the line where 
it crossed, but not nearer than 10 feet of the goal¬ 
posts. When the ball is put in play, each team en¬ 
deavors to drive it through the opposing line and 
score a goal. Each goal counts one point. 

The four players are respectively the two for- 

313 


Sports and Games 

wards, the halfback, and the back. It is the duty of 
the two latter players to support the attack of the 
forwards who drive the ball against and through 
the enemy’s lines, if possible. Meanwhile their sup¬ 
porting players are protecting the ball in play from 
the advance of the opponents by blocking them and 
in other ways opposing their defence. 

The players on the opposite side each have his 
man to engage. The two forwards try to block the 
efforts of the opposing forwards while the other two 
men behind them endeavor to obtain and drive for¬ 
ward the ball. Of course, in meles and generally 
mixed plays, these original playing positions are 
lost sight of, but each player endeavors to keep his 
own general duties in mind, and play so as to assist 
his team-mates as much as possible, rather than try 
for any individual glory, if at the expense of the 
team as a whole. 

As in other concerted sports, the whole success 
of the team lies in its ability to work together in 
powerful co-ordination. Players who have trained 
together for any length of time seem intuitively to 
sense what is expected of them and to fall in naturally 
with the group or mass play. 

Polo is a game for a man of clear head and quick 
action. While the over-impulsive player often 
comes to grief, he stands a much better chance of 
success than the over-deliberate player. The win¬ 
ning player must be able to see a strategic point at 

3H 



A match game between West Point and Virginia Military Institute. A grapple in midfield. 






Polo 


a glance, to dash forward quickly and unerringly, 
to assume the leadership if such is required, and 
either to strike the ball while going at full gallop 
down the field, or else pave the way so that the 
player behind him may have an uninterrupted field 
to play. 

Much depends upon the training of the pony, and 
both in match play and practice, the leader must 
avoid overstraining his horse. He must have a suf¬ 
ficient string so that a fresh mount can be obtained 
at short notice. Championship contests require from 
four to twelve ponies for each player. Pastime 
games do not demand so many. 

Above all, the player must so conduct himself as 
to give no opportunity for criticism on the part of 
his opponents. While in some involved plays it is 
almost impossible to avoid fouls, or off-side plays, 
they should never be intentional, and when the 
player’s attention is called to his error by an umpire, 
he should be the first to recognize and abide by the 
decision. 



QUOITS 


X 


* 





% 





QUOITS 


TITTLE is known about the origin of the game 
of quoits, or its verbal derivative. It has been 
traced to the old French verb, quoiter, to stir up. 
The earliest resemblance to the game is found in the 
ancient discus throwing, which has been revived for 
athletic contests. The discus, however, is solid, and 
the object is to hurl it as great a distance as possible; 
while the quoit is a thick metal ring which is hurled 
at a mark. 

Quoits was first taken up as a game, according to 
the few existing records, in Scotland and England 
about the fourteenth century. In the reign of Ed¬ 
ward III. a royal decree was promulgated against 
the game, on the ground that it served no useful 
purpose in the way of military training. Archery 
was advocated instead. Ascham, a Latin scholar, 
alludes to it in 1545 in derogatory terms—“quoiting 
to be too vile for scholars.” 

It was frowned upon by the gentry as a common 
sport, but taken up by the laboring classes, as it re¬ 
quired little playing equipment, and a court could 
be set up anywhere, at short notice. Then, as now, 
horse-shoes were often used instead of quoits. 

In this country, there are two separate games, 

3i9 


Sports and Games 

with different scoring and rules. For example, the 
quoit pins are sunk flush with the ground; while the 
horse-shoe pins project several inches, and a prime 
object of the game is to “make a ringer.” The game 
reached its height of popularity about the time of the 
Civil War. Official rules were drawn up in 1869. 

Both quoits and horse-shoes are healthful and at¬ 
tractive forms of recreation. One great advantage 
about them is that a playing court can easily be set 
up in any vacant lot and the tools of the game are 
quite simple. 

While the game as commonly played attracts little 
attention outside of the immediate circle of contes¬ 
tants, it can be developed into a high degree of skill. 
The outdoor exercise, the sweep of the arms, and 
playing conditions generally conduce to good 
physique. 

Perhaps where one game of quoits is played pro¬ 
fessionally—that is, with strict regard to rules—a 
dozen are played “go as you please.” But who shall 
say that the latter are not just as enjoyable? 

The professional court should be 80 feet long by 
25 feet wide. The actual pitching distance from 
stake to stake is 18 yards. The outside dimensions 
above given allow the extra space which this game 
requires. 

The ends of the rink are circular and about three 
feet in diameter. Each end is filled with pottery 
clay of a stiff-sticking character so that when a quoit 

320 



Quoits 

lands it is not easily removed by another quoit. Im* 
bedded in the clay at each end are two iron pins, 
or motts, about forty inches long and one inch in 
diameter. They are driven into the ground until 
the head is even with the clay. The nearest point of 
a quoit to the pin only counts, and the measurement 
in all instances is taken from the center of the head 
of the pin. 

In tournament games, 61 points constitute a game. 
Where the contest is close, the playing time often 
occupies three or four hours. 

There is a correct way as well as an incorrect way 
to pitch a quoit. The poise and attitude of the man, 
whether or not he is a good pitcher, goes a long way 
toward benefiting his game. 

To deliver a quoit correctly it is necessary to stand 
erect, with feet close together, the quoit firmly 
clutched and brought up to almost level with the 
eyes. After gauging the point to be reached, the 
arm should be thrown well back, and after getting 
the full swing, stepping out with the left foot, the 
“iron” should be sent to its destination. The greatest 
obstacle in the way of a successful pitcher is the 
lack of courage. No matter how perfect the posi¬ 
tion may be, or how correct you may gauge the dis¬ 
tance, without courage the quoit is very apt to leave 
the hand irregularly and land far away from the 
point aimed at. 

A point is scored for the contestant who places his 

321 


Sports and Games 

quoit nearest to the pin, and in no instance can 
there be more than one point scored on a single pitch. 
Before established rules were made for the game a 
quoit encircling a pin was called a “ringer” and 
could not be beaten unless dislodged. Under the 
present rules of the game, however, a “ringer,” if 
any part of the quoit should be nearest the pin, counts 
for but one point. 

To determine the winning quoit, measurement 
must be taken from that part of the quoit lying 
nearest the pin to the head of the pin, the measure¬ 
ment to be from inside the rim or outside. Fre¬ 
quently quoits are broken during a game by a strongly 
pitched quoit coming in contact with one that had 
previously been pitched, and in that event the piece 
of the broken quoit lying nearest the pin must be 
considered in the measurement for the point. 

The above are tournament rules, however, and not 
generally applied to every-day contests. The rules 
most generally recognized are similar to the follow¬ 
ing Municipal Playground Rules in use in Chicago. 

In the playground contests, Spalding Official 
Quoits shall be used and the weight and size shall 
be optional with the contestants. 

The quoits used in the senior city championship 
matches shall not weigh less than three (3) pounds. 

The distance shall be twenty feet from hob to hob 
in all playgrounds. The distance from hob to hob 
shall be thirty feet in the senior contests. 

322 


Quoits 

The hob shall measure at least twelve inches in 
length and five-eighths of an inch in diameter. 

Delivering Quoits. —1. No steps shall be allowed 
ahead of the hob in the act of pitching quoits. 

2. The pitcher may stand astride the hob, pro¬ 
vided his feet are back of line drawn at right angles 
from the center of the hob to a line drawn from 
hob to hob. 

3. The pitcher may stand back of the hob and 
take a step forward, provided he does not step in 
front of the hob. 

4. The person having the lead shall deliver both 
quoits consecutively. 

5. The quoits must be pitched with convex sur¬ 
face uppermost. 

6. A quoit turned in the act of delivering or by 
being struck with a pitched quoit, shall count. 

Scoring of Points .—Junior contests—Twenty-one 
points to constitute a game; best two out of three 
games to decide a match. Senior contests—Fifteen 
points for a game, and highest number of points in 
five games decides winner of series. 

Ringers. —1. A pitched quoit which encircles 
the hob (ringer) shall count 3 points. 

2. A double ringer shall count 6 points. 

3. A ringer, topped by an opponent, shall count 
6 points for person pitching last ringer. 

4. A triple ringer scores 9 points for person 
pitching last ringer. 

3 2 3 



Sports and Games 

5. A ringer topped by two hobbers (both quoits 
must touch the hob) counts 7 points for person pitch¬ 
ing the hobbers. 

6. A pitcher placing a ringer and a hobber that 
may be topped with a hobber by an opponent scores 
3 points for his ringer. 

Hobbers. —1. A pitched quoit resting on the hob 
(hobber) shall count 2 points. 

2. A hobber topped by another quoit shall count 
2 points for quoit nearest or resting on the hob. 

3. In case of an “A” and a “B” quoit resting on 
the hob, they shall both be removed and the nearest 
of the remaining two quoits count as 1 point. 

4. Two hobbers shall count 4 points provided 
both quoits touch the hob. 

Combination Plays. —1. A ringer and a hoEber 
shall count 5 points. 

2. A ringer topped by a hobber pitched by an 
opponent shall count 3 points for person pitching 
the ringer. 

3. In case of a double ringer being topped by a 
hobber, 6 points shall be scored for person scoring 
second ringer. 

4. In case a ringer is topped with a ringer and 
then a hobber by an opponent, 8 points shall be 
scored for person pitching the last ringer and hobber. 

Single Points . —1. When neither a ringer nor a 
hobber is made, the nearest quoit to the hob shall 
count 1 point. 


3 2 4 



Quoits 

2. If two “A” or “B” quoits are nearest hob, 2 
points shall be scored, i.e., one point for each quoit. 

3. In case of a tie between “A” and “B” quoits, 
they shall be removed and the remaining two 
measured and 1 point scored for nearest quoit. 

4. Should three quoits be in contact with the 
hob, two shall be considered as tied, and remaining 
quoit scores 1 point for owner. 

Holes .—Whenever a cavity six inches deep is dug 
out at any point around the hob, the hob must be 
removed to a smooth surface, still maintaining reg¬ 
ular distance specified. 

Conduct .—The use of improper language or any 
act perpetrated to disconcert or interrupt the play¬ 
ers while in the act of throwing his quoit, is pro¬ 
hibited. Each player to have the privilege of throw¬ 
ing his quoit over again in the event of such having 
taken place. 


HORSE-SHOE PITCHING 

This innocent game is played, as its name implies, 
with regular horse-shoes. It has been familiarly 
called “barnyard golf 1 ’ but, as a matter of fact, was 
played in this country long before the game of golf 
was heard of in barnyard circles. The official rules 
as adopted by the National Horse-shoe Pitchers’ 
Association of the United States with headquarters 
at Akron, Ohio, are as follows: 

Grounds and Courts .—The grounds shall be as 

325 


Sports and Games 

level as possible. The pitcher’s box shall be filled 
with potter’s clay or any substitute of a like nature; 
the clay must be kept moist and worked to a putty¬ 
like condition and to a depth of not less than 6 inches 
and at least 18 inches area around the stake. 

Pitchers Box .—The pitcher's box shall extend 3 
feet on either side to the rear and front of the stake. 
Said box shall be constructed of material 2x4 inches 
and shall not extend more than 1 inch above the 
level of the ground. Where several or more courts 
are constructed, a 2 x 4-inch shall be laid the full 
length of such courts 3 feet in front of the stakes. 

In delivering the shoe into the opposite pitcher’s 
box, a contestant may stand anywhere inside the 
pitcher’s box. For indoor pitching the boxes shall 
not exceed 6 inches in height above the adjoining 
grade. 

Stakes .—The stakes shall be of iron, 1 inch in 
diameter, perpendicular, inclined 1 inch toward the 
opposite stake and extending 8 inches above the 
ground in the pitcher’s box. 

On single courts the stakes shall be set in the center 
of the pitcher’s box. Where several or more courts 
are constructed, the stakes shall be not less than 8 
feet apart, in a straight direct line where possible. 

Horse-shoes .—No horse-shoe shall exceed the fol¬ 
lowing regulations: 7 l /> inches in length, 7 inches 
in width, 2j4 pounds in weight. No toe or heel 
calk shall measure over three-quarters (J4) of an 

326 


Quoits 


inch in length. Opening between the calks shall 
not exceed Z l / 2 inches, inside measurements. No 
horse-shoe constructed in a freak design will be con¬ 
sidered regulation. 

Regulation Games .—A standard regulation game 
shall consist of 50 points, and the contestant first 
scoring this number after all shoes shall have been 
pitched, shall be declared the winner. 

In all match or exhibition games between two 
contestants, 11 games of 50 points each shall be an 
official series, and the one winning 6 games shall be 
declared the winner. 

Pitching Distance. —The standard regulation dis¬ 
tance shall be 40 feet from stake to stake, measuring 
where the stake enters the ground. For women in 
contests and tournaments, the distance shall be 30 
feet. 

Pitching Rules. —No contestant shall walk across 
to the opposite stake and examine the position of his 
opponents’ shoes before making his first or final 
pitch. 

All contestants shall pitch both shoes from the 
pitching box, into the opposite pitching box, or for¬ 
feit the value of 1 point to his opponent. 

All contestants having first pitch, after delivering 
both shoes, shall stand back of a line even with the 
stake and out of the pitcher’s box. 

Any contestant failing to comply with this rule 
shall forfeit the value of such shoes pitched. 

327 


Sports and Games 

Any contestant delivering his shoes outside of the 
opposite pitcher’s box shall forfeit the value of his 
pitch. 

Wrapping the fingers with tape, or the wearing 
of gloves, shall be permitted in any or all games. 

If at any time a shoe is broken, such as by striking 
another shoe, the frame of the pitcher’s box, the stake 
or other cause, such shoe shall be removed, and the 
contestant entitled to another pitch. 

Ringers .—Any shoe to be scored as a ringer shall 
encircle the stake far enough to permit a straight 
edge to touch both heel calks and clear the stake. 

Foul Lines .—A foul line shall be established 3 feet 
in front of the stake, and any pitcher stepping over 
the foul line in delivering his shoe shall lose the 
value of his pitch and no score shall be credited to 
him. 

Foul Shoe .—A shoe that does not remain within 
6 inches of the stake, in all national tournaments and 
match contests, shall not be entitled to score. (This 
does not apply to informal pitching or games where 
the players decide otherwise.) 

If a shoe strikes the frame of the pitcher’s box or 
other object, such shoe shall be considered a foul 
shoe and shall not score. 

Points .—The most points a contestant can score in 
a single game shall be SO. 

A pitcher shall be credited with all ringers 
pitched. 


328 


Quoits 

If a shoe when thrown moves another shoe, both 
shoes are counted in their new positions. 

Ties .—All equals shall be counted as ties. If 
both contestants have one shoe each an equal distance 
from the stake, or against the stake or ringers, they 
shall be counted tie, and the next closest shoe shall 
score. In case of all four shoes being tie or equal 
distance from the stake, or four ringers, no score 
shall be recorded and the contestant who pitched last 
shall be awarded the lead. 

Measurements .—All measurements shall be made 
by the use of calipers and a straight edge. 

Coaching .—No contestants during the progress of 
a game, contest or tournament, shall coach, molest or 
in any way interfere with a pitcher in any manner, 
except that in four-handed games, partners shall 
have the right to coach each other. 

First Pitch .—At the beginning of a game the con¬ 
testants shall agree as to who shall have the first 
pitch, either in single, three or four-handed games, 
by the toss of a coin, the winner to have his choice 
as to lead. At the beginning of the second game the 
loser of the preceding game shall have the first pitch. 

National and State Tournaments .—In all cham¬ 
pionship tournaments the rotation group method 
shall prevail. In each group each pitcher will pitch 
every other game. Same procedure shall prevail in 
the finals. 

All tie games shall be pitched off. 

329 


Sports and Games 

No championship shall be won or lost otherwise 
than in a legal tournament 

Disputes and Final Jurisdiction .—In case of any 
dispute, or where the rules do not specifically cover 
a disputed point, the referee or committee in charge 
shall have full power and final jurisdiction. 

Scoring Rules .—Any shoe that does not remain 
within 6 inches of the stake shall not be scored or 
counted in championship contests. 

The closest shoe to the stake (within 6 inches) 
shall score 1 point. If both shoes are closer than the 
opponent’s they shall score 2 points. 

A ringer shall score 3 points. 

A ringer and a closest shoe shall score 4 points. 

A double ringer shall score 6 points and is the 
highest score a contestant can make. 

In case of each contestant having a ringer, the 
next closest shoe shall score, and all such ringers 
shall be credited as ringers pitched but not counted 
as a score. 

If each contestant has a double ringer, both double 
ringers are cancelled and no points scored. 

If a contestant shall have two ringers and his op¬ 
ponent one, the pitcher having two ringers shall 
score 3 points. 

In case of a tie of all four shoes, such as four 
ringers or all four shoes an equal distance from the 
stake, no score shall be recorded, and the contestants 
who pitched last will be awarded the lead, 

330 


Quoits 

Where ringers are pitched and cancelled, they 
shall be credited to the contestant who pitched such 
ringers, and no score shall be credited as points 
scored. 

All equals shall be counted as ties and no points 
scored. 

Any shoe leaning against a stake shall have no 
advantage over a shoe lying on the ground and 
against the stake; all such shoes are ties. If a con¬ 
testant has a shoe leaning against the stake it shall 
count only as a closest shoe. 

Three-Handed Games .—In three-handed games, 
where two contestants each have a double ringer and 
the third contestant no ringers, the two contestants 
having double ringers shall score their shoe no count. 
If all three contestants each have a ringer they shall 
score the closest shoe. If two contestants each have 
a ringer and the third contestant no ringers, the two 
contestants having ringers shall score their closest 
shoes. 

In all three-handed games the contestants having 
ringers shall at all times score their closest shoes 
over their opponents who have no ringers, whether 
it be two contestants with double or single ringers 
each. 

In any and all games the contestant scoring shall 
have the lead or pitch. 


33 r 







SKATING 















V 



SKATING 


J UST how far back in the remote past skating 
ceased to be a necessity and was taken up as a 
luxury, nobody knows. It is quite probable in those 
far-off days when Northern Europe was ice bound, 
that people traveled from one point to another very 
extensively on skates. These skates may have orig¬ 
inally been flat pieces of wood turned up at the end 
like sled runners, and later perhaps forms of horn, 
before people learned how to make skates from 
metal. The Dutch today in winter-time use their 
canals as such highways of communication both by 
skates and sled, showing the evolution of this means 
of transportation from early times. 

Undoubtedly there must have been a species of 

skating in antiquity, for a bone skate, which is the 

• • 

earliest form of skate preserved for us, was dug up in 
the Moorfields near London, in 1841, and from the 
soil and other relics it must have dated back to at 
least the twelfth century. 

One of the first recorded mentions of the sport oc¬ 
curs in Evelyn’s diary written in 1662, which speaks 
of skating and skaters more than once. Pepys, a still 
more famous diarist of the same time, makes men- 

•4 ' 

tion of the skating costume of the day and especially 

33S 


Sports and Games 

of “the very short petticoat of the Princess of 
Orange,” as she “did slide upon her scates, first on 
one foot and then on the other.” If Pepys was 
shocked at the skating attire of the Princess, we 
wonder what he would think of the knickerbocker 
suits of the girls of today! 

There is very little in early literature referring to 
skating except brief records of skating events. Addi¬ 
son wrote a poem on the subject in the year 1720, but 
the other poets generally preferred to write about 
springtime and flowers and their lady’s eyes, rather 
than a subject so inherently cold as skating. 

The first skating club of which we now have a 
record was organized in Edinburgh in the year 1744. 
The sport was very little known, however, during 
the ensuing twenty-five or thirty years, for in the 
life of Benjamin West, the famous American painter 
who went abroad and painted royalty, we read that 
he attracted a great deal of attention by his ability 
to skate. West came from Pennsylvania and may 
have learned this accomplishment in boyhood from 
the Indians, although very little is said in regard to 
the skill of the Redskins on ice. 

In the year 1791, the young man Napoleon Bona¬ 
parte while a student at military school had a narrow 
escape from drowning while skating on the ice. In 
1809 the first book on skating was published in Eng¬ 
land and appeared in the Latin tongue. Why it 
should have been addressed to scholars rather than 

336 


Skating 

to the general public, nobody knows. Five years 
later, another book on the subject entitled “Fros- 
tiana” appeared with its hints and suggestions to 
skaters, who were evidently recognized as being in 
considerable numbers. One curious recommenda¬ 
tion of this book reads that the skater carry a bag 
of shot in certain pockets in order to assist him in 
maintaining the correct balance. 

While skating was known in America for many 
years previous to this, as witness the Benjamin West 
episode, there appears not to have been any formal 
cognizance of the sport until about the middle of the 
last century. In the year 1849, a skating club was 
organized in Philadelphia, and eleven years later 
one in New York. A skating carnival was held in 
Brooklyn during the time of the Civil War. 

It was about this time that two of the most famous 
of the earlier skaters in America began to attract 
world-wide attention. Jackson Haines, pictures of 
whom represent an extremely handsome man with 
well-formed legs, won fame in America for his fancy 
skating and then went abroad where he was the 
leading figure at skating carnivals and won many 
prizes. W. H. Fuller, who has been styled the father 
of figure skating in New England, also attracted 
wide attention abroad. He is described as a remark¬ 
ably brilliant figure skater who invented many of 
the designs which are still dear to the hearts of all 
fancy skaters. 


337 


Sports and Games 

From this time on, interest in skating increased 
rapidly both in America and in Europe. National 
competitions were held and world records for var¬ 
ious events and distances became the features. About 
the year 1915, interest in skating reached its culmi¬ 
nation. It grew overnight into a tremendous fad, 
theatres, dance halls and restaurants installing small 
skating rinks as regular features where star perform¬ 
ers could entertain with their figure skating in lieu 
of the usual cabaret song and dance. The Hippo¬ 
drome of New York converted its huge stage into a 
rink on which was staged an elaborate ice ballet. At 
the same time, indoor rinks were opened in cities 
all over the country, even as far south as San Diego, 
California. These took the place of the once pop¬ 
ular roller skating rinks. Whether or not ice skat¬ 
ing will subside as suddenly as that popular craze of 
a few years ago is still a matter of conjecture, as each 
winter ice rinks all over the country do a flourishing 
business. 

Like all Gaul, skating may be divided into three 
parts—pleasure skating, racing, and fancy skating. 

SKATING FOR FUN 

By pleasure skating we mean, of course, the usual 
type of skating indulged in by the great American 
public—those who go in for the joy of the sport at 
odd moments and do not bother their heads about 
fancy figures or great speed. But even these ordi- 

338 


Skating 

nary every-day skaters can get some tips from the 
others that it would be well to follow. It is just as 
easy to learn to skate properly and gracefully as it 
is to plod around over the ice awkwardly. 

The most common faults of all beginners and many 
who have skated for a long time are these: (1) Bend¬ 
ing over the head too far and at an awkward angle. 
This is probably done at first in an effort to keep one’s 
balance, but then later to acquire speed. But it is 
awkward for several reasons. It is liable to pitch one 
forward, if the skater encounters a crack or other 
obstacle in the ice; it prevents the lungs from filling 
with air; and it prevents the skater from looking 
about him properly as he dashes madly ahead 
through the crowd. (2) Flourishing the arms. How 
often do we see skaters go around like animated wind 
mills! They try to correct every slight loss of bal¬ 
ance by wild gestures, first on one side and then the 
other. (3) Bending the knee joint. This is one of 
the most common faults of all. It tends to hold the 
body in an awkward position. The legs especially 
the one not employed should be thrown out full and 
free. (4) Swinging from side to side. While a 
certain amount of rhythm is graceful and adds to 
ease in skating, any pronounced swaying gives the 
skater the effect of a ship at sea. 

The Natural Carriage .—From the moment when 
you first set foot upon the ice try to assume and cul¬ 
tivate a natural carriage. Remember that skating 

339 



Sports and Games 

is not widely different from walking, and if one 
learns the wrong way it is very hard to unlearn and 
cultivate the right way. Hold the head upright as 
much as possible with the shoulders squared well 
back so that the lungs can be easily filled with life- 
giving air. Do not open the mouth or part the lips 
any more than necessary, as this not only looks ugly 
but tends to chap the lips. Glance from side to side 
as you skate just as though you were walking down 
the street, and try to forget as soon as possible your 
medium of locomotion. Glance down only enough 
to watch your step and avoid cracks, rough places 
and other pitfalls, but only an occasional glance is 
required to insure you of safety. With this assurance 
take your glance resolutely away from the ice ahead 
of you, and look round about you at the moving 
throng and the wintry landscape. Skating is like 
any other sport in developing confidence. In this 
it is somewhat like bicycle riding. Your seasoned 
cyclist scarcely glances at the ground at all and at 
times is so supremely confident of what his wheel 
will do, that he takes his hands entirely off the han¬ 
dle-bars. 

With head held erect and naturally, allow the 
arms to swing freely as you skate. Do not try to hold 
them rigid any more than you should wish to swing 
them around unnecessarily. When walking you 
usually forget about your arms entirely. Do the 
same thing when skating. Some skaters like to fold 

340 



SKATING 

A professional racer warming up at Lake Placid. 








Skating 

them and hold them this way. Such a pose, however, 
is likely to look stilted and assumed. Other skaters, 
especially the speed skaters, prefer to hold the arms 
behind their backs with the fingers interlaced. 
This again is an awkward attitude for the ordinary 
pleasure skater. If it will help you, hold some small 
object in the hand such as a light hockey stick, but 
avoid above all things the wild waving of the arms 
already mentioned. Do not carry any attitude to 
extremes. If a slight swaying of the arms will assist 
you, especially in turning a corner, do not hesitate 
to let them swing, but avoid keeping up such swing¬ 
ing beyond the moment necessary. 

Swaying of the body or bending it sidewise from 
the hips is of course caused by caution on the part of 
the skater. He may be rounding a corner, or dodg¬ 
ing an obstruction, or trying to preserve his balance 
while on the outer edge of one skate, but such a move¬ 
ment is instinctive and natural and the only caution 
is to avoid using it so often that it becomes habitual. 
As to the posture of the legs, Irving Brokaw, the 
champion figure skater, has this to say: “The ‘un¬ 
employed’ leg must be only slightly bent; excessive 
hooking gives it a very clumsy appearance, and, 
moreover, does away with its utility. This ‘unem¬ 
ployed’ leg is sometimes called the ‘balance’ leg, 
which is perhaps a more correct term, because al¬ 
though the skate is off the ice, the unemployed leg 
has as much, if not more, control in the execution of 

34i 


Sports and Games 

a movement than the employed, or tracing leg, and it 
must be used to help the skater and not be repressed. 
Smoothness and grace in skating are largely due 
to the proper use of the limbs. The unemployed 
foot must be carried in such a manner that the toe is 
always pointing downwards and outwards. Carry¬ 
ing the toe outwards is managed by turning the un¬ 
employed leg outwards from the hip. This will be 
found not easy at first. It is, however, essential that 
a skater should overcome this difficulty by practice, 
if proficiency is to be obtained." 

To sum up the foregoing, we cannot do better than 
quote the following concise rules for correct form 
which have been recognized by figure skaters and are 
of no less value to the casual skater: 

1. Head erect with eyes upon the ice seldom or 
never during the free-skating, and, in the school 
skating, no more than is absolutely necessary. 

2. Body upright, not bent forwards or sidewise 
from the hips, shoulders thrown back, and chest 
expanded. 

3. Arms, whether active or passive, should have 
free play from the shoulders, elbows slightly bent, 
hands with the palms downward or inward. 

4. Skating legs always bent at the knee, to insure 
a springy rise and dip of the body. 

5. Free leg poised or swung entirely from the 
hip, in the socket of which it should be turned out¬ 
ward and backward as much as possible; always 

342 


Skating 

separated from the skating leg, knee slightly bent, 
toe pointing down and out. 

We might add to the above that graceful and easy 
skating is promoted by long sustained strokes. Your 
choppy skater gets nowhere. Take a full stroke, 
raising the free foot high and getting the full effect 
of your momentum before bringing this foot down 
to the ice for a second stroke. 

RACING 

After having thoroughly mastered the ordinary 
skating strokes, the athletic young man or woman 
will naturally be interested in speed contests. Every 
year in all of the large cities such contests are held, 
and hardly a year goes by without some record for 
short dashes being broken. 

The speed skater, like the foot racer, must be 
guided by certain definite rules. These apply to the 
start of the race itself and to the finish. A good 
start can be made by digging the toes of the skates 
into the ice and poising crouched ready for a quick 
get away at the firing of the pistol. Other contes¬ 
tants are allowed a flying start and timed as they 
cross the starting line; as it takes some little effort 
and time to attain one’s full speed on skates, this is 
really the fairest way to judge speed on the ice. Don’t 
scramble as you go down the fairway. Don’t be 
worried about what the skater on the right or left of 
you is doing. Keep your eyes fixed on the goal post 

343 


Sports and Games 

and head for it with long even strokes, conserving 
your energy as much as possible for the final dash. 
Don’t open the mouth. Don’t swing the arms except 
to aid the poise of the body at critical times. A for¬ 
ward pose of the body is preferred by some success¬ 
ful skaters, but undue bending looks exaggerated and 
really handicaps the breathing apparatus. 

To illustrate the various types of speed contests 
together with the time made in some, we will quote 
from the program and speed records of the Inter¬ 
national Speed Skating Championship Contests held 
at Saranac Lake, N. Y., in February, 1922. 

Senior, Three-Quarter Mile Race, time, 2.06 1-5. 
Senior, Half-Mile Race, time, 1.25 3-5. Senior, 
One-Mile Race, time, 3.15 2-5. Junior (16 years), 
800-Yard Dash, time, 1.34 4-5. Senior, 440-Yard 
Dash, time, 0.41 3-5. Senior, Three-Mile Race, 
time, 10.03 3-5. Junior, One-Mile Race (16 Years), 
time, 3.33 4-5. Junior, 220-Yard Dash (16 Years), 
time, 0.23. 

The World’s Distance Championships, held at 
Christiania, Norway, in the same month were re¬ 
ported as follows: 500 metres, 0.43 3-5 (a new Nor¬ 
wegian record) ; 5,000 metres, 8.21 1-2 (world’s 
record); 1,500 metres, 2.22 4-5; 10,000 metres, 17.37 
1-5. 

FIGURE SKATING 

As soon as the skater has gained confidence and 
can skate in the ordinary way, he should begin to 

344 


Skating 

master the art of skating upon the outside edge of 
the blade. Put upon the ice a small stone, a piece 
of wood, or any other object to serve for a center. 
Leaning a little in the direction of this center, 
and pressing your weight upon the outer edge of the 
skate, push yourself round and round the center with 
your left foot. Then practice going round on the 
outside edge of your left skate in a similar way. 
Difficult as these movements will be at first, they be¬ 
come easy like other hard tasks by practice, and they 
open the way to graceful figure skating. 

When the two circles have been mastered it is 
quite easy to cut a figure 3 upon the ice. Begin on 
the outside edge of the right skate as though you 
meant to go in a circle, but allow your left foot to 
hang behind your right foot. There it will act as a 
kind of weight, your body will tend to swing around, 
and you will cut out the second part of the 3 traveling 
backwards, and upon the inner edge of the skate. 
The impetus gained in cutting the first part of the 
figure will carry you to the end. Going in the other 
direction cut another 3 with your left foot, and when 
you can do these you are on the high road to complete 
success as a skater. 

Says Irving Brokaw, who is an acknowledged 
authority on this subject: “Striking developments 
have taken place in the last few years in the art of 
skating. The theory of the art has been made so 
simple, and the exposition of the theory so clear and 

345 


Sports and Games 

practical, that not only may older people learn to 
skate from printed instructions, but boys and girls 
also, if once they think it worth while to try and get 
over the idea that the hockey skate and the game 
constitutes all there is in the art of skating. All per¬ 
sons who would like to learn to skate must devote 
themselves solely to the practice of the art of figure 
skating and make use of the skate devoted to that 
purpose, which, instead of having a perfectly flat 
runner, is curved on the bottom, so as to make it 
possible to execute curves and circles on the ice, 
which are the fundamental elements of the art.” 

The general suggestions already made for correct 
carriage in regular skating are no less important in 
figure work. The body should be held easily and 
naturally with the employed leg slightly bent at the 
knee and the other leg straight. The skating toe 
should always be pointed slightly outward unless one 
has done an evolution and a particular figure which 
requires an inward curve. Use both arms and legs 
freely and easily. This not only promotes balance 
and consequent facility for making figures but also 
keeps the body from undue strain and weariness. 

The elements of figure skating include: 1. The 
curve down the four edges. 2. Outside and inside 
forwards. 3. Outside and inside backwards. It is 
a combination of these three movements which re¬ 
sults in all of the intricate figures which are prac¬ 
ticed by the finished skater. 

346 


Skating 

Do not begin by trying to do loops and curves, 
figure 8’s and spread eagles as small as possible. 
Instead, do them as large as possible. It is a mis¬ 
taken idea that to become accustomed to doing large 
figures makes the execution of small figures difficult. 
The reverse is the case. After one has learned how 
to execute the large figure involving several loops, 
he can practice the same figure daily, each time 
making it a little bit smaller and thus acquiring 
perfection for figure as well as its small size at one 
and the same time. 

Bear in mind that from the very outset the free 
and full use of both feet is essential to good figure 
skating. No skater can succeed if he persistently 
favors one foot at the expense of the other. With 
most of us one foot is by nature a little bit weaker or 
a little clumsier than the other. It is the object of 
the beginner to discover which foot is the weaker 
and practice it all the more. If there is a disinclina¬ 
tion to use it, that should be a signal to continue to 
use it until such weakness is conquered. When the 
two feet are equally efficient, the figure skater is on 
the right road to success—but not before. 

Begin as with plain circles the large size, such as 
will all point into the well-known figure 8. Learn 
to do this both forward and backward and on any 
edge of the skate. 

Professional skaters are required to execute such 
figures through “rest.” Thus, if you stand on your 

347 


Sports and Games 

right foot, the whole momentum required to com¬ 
plete the figure must be gained by one stroke or 
thrust from the side of the left skate. There can be 
no running start in this work, and the stroke must 
be taken from the side rather than the toe of the 
skate. This is not easy to acquire, but later the 
skater will find that there is a certain trick in sud¬ 
denly throwing the body forward and thus gaining 
momentum for the desired stroke. 

School Figures. The fancy figure skater recog¬ 
nizes certain definite “school figures” which are just 
as formal and precise as the waltz and the polka to 
the dancing master. For example, there is a group 
of elementary school figures which include circles, 
eights, serpentines, threes, double threes, loops, 
brackets, rockers and counters. Each of these ele¬ 
mentary school figures is made in one of four pre¬ 
scribed ways, depending upon the stroke of the skate, 
and if made in any other way is incorrectly done. 
Next come the series of advanced school figures 
which include one foot eight, change-three, change- 
double, change-loop, change-bracket, three-change- 
three, double - three - change - double - three, loop - 
change-loop, bracket-change-bracket. These also 
are made in four ways each, in order to follow the 
prescribed rule. In addition to these school figures, 
there are at least sixteen others done in America and 
known by American names such as Forward Cross 
Mohawk, Forward Cross Choctaw, etc. All these 

343 


Skating 

sixteen figures are combinations of the Mohawk and 
Choctaw. The Mohawk figure is a method of going 
forward to backward or backward to forward on an 
edge of the same character. It is effected by spread¬ 
ing the feet and can be easily done by those who have 
learned the spread eagle. The Choctaw is some¬ 
what more difficult and alludes to the position of the 
feet by which it is possible to put the unemployed 
foot down on the inside back tread instead of the 
outside back. Inasmuch as both of these figures or 
combinations of figures are made by cross strokes or 
reverse strokes, they have not been recognized by 
many skating professors. Cross strokes, in fact, if 
not well done, are extremely awkward and can hard¬ 
ly be regarded as anything but skating curiosities. 
For this reason it is not at all probable that they will 
ever win favor. There seems to be no reason, how¬ 
ever, beyond the difficulty of skating them, why the 
forward Choctaws and Mohawks should not take 
their place in the regular repertoire of first-class 
skaters. It is only by means of these steps that inside 
and outside back threes, emanating from and ending 
at the center, can be successfully erected. 

We cannot, of course, attempt to teach fancy skat¬ 
ing in the present article. We are only setting forth 
some of its guiding principles and we doubt frankly 
if any book, no matter how explicit and well illus¬ 
trated, can give the fancy skater the pointers he de¬ 
mands. He should put himself under the guidance 

349 


Sports and Games 

of an advanced skater and learn by practical instruc¬ 
tion on the ice the proper method of making these 
figures. Once having mastered them on the ice, it 
is possible to take a book on the subject and read up 
still further, as well as to get suggestions for new 
figures. 

DANCING ON THE ICE 

A variation of figure skating and especially of such 
skating in pairs which has become extremely popu¬ 
lar among exhibition skaters is dancing on the ice. 
For this also very definite and rigid rules have been 
laid down. The skater is taught the waltz, the 
schottische, the mazurka, and other forms of dances. 
A few years ago a dancer from Russia known as 
Charlotte created a furore by her beautiful fancy 
steps. She has been followed by a school of imi¬ 
tators. 

In judging dancing competitions on the ice, the 
judges often have' a ruled score card marked under 
the heads: A—Carriage; B—Grace; C—Unity; 
D—Time. 

Carriage includes erect carriage and parallel 
positions, accurate curves and smooth turns. Grace 
includes suppleness, pliancy, and flexibility. Unity 
includes striking at same moment, absolutely simul¬ 
taneous rotation, unity and harmony of movement. 
Time includes time to the music; rhythmic, un- 
dulatory movement. 


350 


Skating 


SKATE SAILING 

Another highly interesting and exciting form of 
amusement on ice is that of skate sailing. A sail 
can be improvised from almost any spread or canvas 
and rigged up by any boy who has ingenuity; and can 
be so arranged that it can be rolled up and carried 
to and from the ice under one’s arm. 

In general, the most satisfactory style of sail is 
square shaped or rectangular, having a spar at top 
and bottom and one in the center to hold the fabric 
rigid. Another popular shape is triangular or kite 
shaped. Instead of heavy canvas, balloon silk or 
even unbleached muslin has been found satisfactory. 
On a straightaway course with the wind behind one, 
a tremendous speed can be obtained reaching as fast 
as thirty miles per hour. A skater, however, had 
better be very sure of his own footing and skill at 
skating before attempting this tricky sport. 

One of the simplest forms of sails is the triangular 
style which comes about as high as the skater’s 
shoulders. It is formed by a cross spar from six to 
eight feet long, and a center sprit which comes down 
to the peak of the sail or about the tip of the shoe of 
the skater. From this frame is suspended a tri¬ 
angular piece of sail which comes to a point at the 
bottom. It is held in position by the skater with 
extended arms and behind him, and by turning 
slightly to the right or left the skater will be enabled 
to control his direction to some extent. 

35i 






6 
































SOCCER 



354 






























SOCCER 


A SSOCIATION FOOTBALL, which has been 
rechristened by the shorter name of “Soccer,” 
is, like Rugby football, an importation from Eng¬ 
land. It is a sport which, even a decade ago, was 
almost unknown in America; but of late its popular¬ 
ity has grown by leaps and bounds. In many quar¬ 
ters, particularly in New England, it has become a 
rival of baseball in the colleges and preparatory 
schools. 

The United States Football Association, govern¬ 
ing soccer, was organized in 1913. In 1923, or at 
the end of ten years, 132 clubs had formally entered 
the field for national championship honors, and this 
did not include many smaller clubs. There are now 
twenty or more sectional associations covering the 
country, which are affiliated with the U. S. F. A. 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

Soccer is played with a round ball (not oval as in 
the other game), which is propelled by the feet, head, 
or any other part of the body except the hands or 
arms. There is no carrying of the ball. The goal¬ 
keeper is the only player who is permitted to touch 

355 


Sports and Games 

the ball with his hands, and that only within a pre¬ 
scribed area. The ball must be not less than 27 
inches, and not more than 28 inches in circumference. 
Its outer casing is of leather. Its weight is 13 to 15 
ounces. 

The playing field is not the accustomed gridiron, 
but one marked by outside boundaries on all four 
sides and bisected by a single line. This field should 
be not less than 50 yards, nor more than 100 yards 
wide, and not less than 100 yards, nor more than 130 
yards long. It is marked by boundary lines, the sides 
being drawn at right angles to the ends. A flag with 
a staff not less than 5 feet high is placed in each of 
the four corners. 

As before stated, a half-way line is clearly marked 
across the field, but there are no other distance lines. 
In the center of this half-way line, and consequently 
the exact center of the playing field, a circle with a 
radius of 10 yards is drawn. 

At each end of the field two goal-posts are erected 
8 yards apart, and equidistant from the corner flags. 
Across these posts a bar is placed, 8 feet from the 
ground. The maximum width of the posts and of 
the crossbar is 5 inches. 

Each of the two goal areas is indicated by a rec¬ 
tangle, beginning 6 yards from each goal-post on the 
goal line, and extending for 6 yards into the playing 
field. These two lines are connected by another line 
running parallel to the goal line. 

356 


Soccer 


A larger rectangle, called the penalty area, is indi¬ 
cated by lines beginning on the goal line, 18 yards 
from each goal-post, and extending into the field 18 
yards, being connected with each other by a line 
parallel to the goal line. 

The distance for the penalty kick is indicated by 
a mark made opposite the center of each goal, and 
12 yards from the line. 

The game is played between two teams of eleven 
men each, viz., one goal-keeper, two full-backs, three 
half-backs, and five forwards. The full-backs are 
known respectively as right and left full-backs; the 
half-backs, as right, center, and left half-backs; and 
the forwards, as outside right, inside right, center, 
inside left, and outside left. 

There are three officials: a referee and two lines¬ 
men. 

At the start-off of the game the players occupy the 
following positions: 

The goal-keeper in the goal; the two full-backs 
from IS to 20 yards from either touchline and just 
within the penalty area; the wing half-backs almost 
directly in front of the full-backs, with a space of 
from 10 to 15 yards between the halves and full¬ 
backs, the center half being in the middle of the field, 
behind the center forward. The forwards, partic- 
ularly on the side having the kick-off, are placed 
along the half-way line, with the center forward in 
the middle, the outside players almost on the touch- 

357 


Sports and Games 

line and the inside players from 3 to 5 yards distant 
from the center forward. 

The side not having the kick-off cannot approach 
within 10 yards of the ball, which results in the cen¬ 
ter forward standing in the middle of the field on the 
10-yard circle, the two inside players somewhere on 
the circle between the center forward and the half¬ 
way line. The outside players occupy positions on 
the half-way line near the touch line. The halves, 
full-backs and goal-keeper occupy the same positions 
as the opposing halves, full-backs and goal-keeper. 

A blast from the referee’s whistle announces the 
beginning of the game, and at once the center for¬ 
ward who, by toss* has possession of the ball, kicks 
it over into the enemy’s country. He does not, how¬ 
ever, send it down the center of the field. Instead, 
he kicks it either to the left or to the right, and one 
of his own team runs forward to intercept it and 
continue its progress down the field. 

Of course, the opposing players are not idle, but 
at once try to intercept the ball and secure it for their 
own side. If any player is blocked in his own efforts, 
he endeavors to pass the ball to one of his team-mates 
—the constant effort being to retain possession of the 
ball, and propel it to within kicking or “shooting” 
distance of the enemy’s goal. 

If a shot at the goal is successful, the ball is 

* The winners of the toss have the option of kick-off or 
choice of goals. 


358 


Soccer 


I 


brought back to the center of the field, and the game 
is restarted by a kick, taken by the center forward 
of the side against whom the goal has been scored. 

The duration of the game is 90 minutes, divided 
into two halves. At the restart after half time, the 
opposite side to that which had the opening kick-off 
now takes the ball. The interval at half time must 
not exceed five minutes. 

At any kick-off from the center of the field, the 
opponents are not allowed to approach within 10 
yards of the ball until it is kicked off, and no player 
on either side is allowed to pass the center line until 
the ball is in play. 

A goal is scored when the ball has passed between 
the goal-posts under the bar, not being thrown, 
knocked on, nor carried by any player of the attack¬ 
ing side. 

The ball is in play if it rebounds from a goal-post 
crossbar, or a corner flagstaff back into the field of 
play. It is out of play when it has crossed the goal 
line or touch line, either on the ground or in the air. 

The goal-keeper is allowed to use his hands to 
ward off the ball within his own penalty area, but is 
not allowed to carry the ball. 

The rules of the game are particularly stringent 
against fouls. No tripping, kicking, striking, nor 
jumping at a player is allowed. An offending player 
is liable to suspension; and if the player attacked 
should attempt to retaliate he also may be suspended. 

359 


Sports and Games 

Neither can a player use his hands to hold an op¬ 
ponent. Charging is permissible but it must not be 
violent or dangerous. A player must not be charged 
from behind unless he is intentionally obstructing an 
opponent. 

When a free kick has been awarded, the opponents 
must not approach within 10 yards of the ball until 
the kick is taken, unless they are standing on their 
own goal line. The ball must be at least rolled over 
before it is considered played. 

A free kick is allowed by the referee, when in his 
judgment the opposing side should be penalized for 
unfair tactics or improper play. In the event of any 
intentional infringement outside the penalty area, or 
by the attacking side within the penalty area, a free 
kick shall be awarded to the opposite side from the 
place where the infringement occurred. In the 
event of any intentional infringement by the defend¬ 
ing side within the penalty area, the referee shall 
award the opponents a penalty kick which shall be 
taken from the penalty kick mark under the follow¬ 
ing conditions: All players, with the exception of 
the player taking the penalty kick and the opponents’ 
goal-keeper shall be outside the penalty area. The 
opponents’ goal-keeper shall not advance beyond his 
goal line. The ball must be kicked forward. The 
ball shall be in play when the kick is taken, and a 
goal may be scored from a penalty kick; but the ball 
shall not be again played by the kicker until it has 

360 


Soccer 


been played by another player. If necessary, time 
of play shall be extended to admit of the penalty kick 
being taken. A free kick shall also be awarded to the 
opposite side if the ball is not kicked forward, or is 
played a second time by the player who takes the 
penalty kick, until it has been played by another 
player. 

The duties of referee are thus defined by the rules: 

“A referee shall be appointed, whose duties shall 
be to enforce the laws and decide all disputed points; 
and his decisions on points of fact connected with the 
play shall be final, so far as the result of the game 
is concerned. He shall also keep a record of the 
game, and act as timekeeper. In the event of any 
ungentlemanly behavior on the part of any of the 
players, the offender or offenders shall be cautioned, 
and if any further offense is committed, or in case of 
violent conduct without any previous caution, the 
referee shall order the offending player or players 
off the field of play, and shall transmit the name or 
names of such player or players to his or their gov¬ 
erning body, who shall deal with the matter. The 
referee shall allow for time wasted, lost through acci¬ 
dent, or other cause, suspend or terminate the game 
whenever, by reason of darkness, interference by, 
spectators, or other cause, he may deem necessary; 
but in all cases in which a game is so terminated he 
shall report the same to the association under whose 
jurisdiction the game was played, who shall deal 

3 61 


Sports and Games 

with the matter. The referee shall award a free kick 
in any case in which he thinks the conduct of a 
player dangerous, or likely to prove dangerous, but 
not sufficiently so as to justify him in putting in force 
the greater powers vested in him. The power of the 
referee extends to offenses committed when the play 
has been temporarily suspended, and when the ball 
is out of play.” 

Two linesmen shall be appointed, whose duty 
(subject to the decision of the referee) shall be to 
decide when the ball is out of play, and which side 
is entitled to the corner-kick, goal-kick, or throw-in; 
and to assist the referee in carrying out the game in 
accordance with the laws. In the event of any undue 
interference or improper conduct by a linesman, the 
referee shall have power to order him off the field 
of play and appoint a substitute. 

IN GENERAL 

The game of soccer cannot be mastered by any 
printed book of instructions, but should be taken up 
under the supervision of a coach or experienced 
player. It requires strong, alert players of good 
physique, who can use their heads for other things 
than to propel the ball. 

Footwork is a highly essential factor in the game. 
The prospective player should learn how to kick or 
propel the ball with every side of the foot. He must 
master the art of trapping or stopping the ball with 

362 


Soccer 


his foot; and also know how to dribble the ball along 
the ground, thus retaining control of it until he has 
the opportunity to try for a goal or pass the ball along 
to one of his mates. 

Legwork is hardly less important. The knees can 
be used to fine advantage in propelling the ball, like¬ 
wise in trapping it. 

Passing. The player must learn how to send the 
ball to a mate by either a long or short pass—and 
also how to receive such passes. Until one becomes 
experienced, the constant temptation will be to use 
the arms or hands, which, of course, is out of the 
question. 

The chest and the head are often used to advantage 
in stopping the ball and in propelling it. The player 
should become confident and fearless in using not 
only the front of his head, but either side as well. 

Teamwork is highly important in soccer as in any 
other concerted game. The most valuable player is 
not the one who is constantly looking for star or 
grandstand plays, but the one who always plays with 
and for his side; the one who is always on the alert 
to intercept an opponent’s ball, but at the same time 
has the tail of his eye upon one or more of his own 
side to whom he may pass it to advantage. 


363 














SWIMMING 




SWIMMING 


A S an exercise swimming is recognized as among 
the most beneficial of all. It is enjoyable, 
stimulating, and tends to fine physique, good*respira¬ 
tion and good circulation. As a means of saving life, 
it is even more important. Not only do thousands of 
people who cannot swim go in the water as a sport, 
but there is also constant travel by water. The abil¬ 
ity to take care of oneself when suddenly thrown 
overboard, or to act quickly when someone else is in 
imminent danger of drowning is of unquestionable 
value. 

Interest in swimming has steadily progressed of 
recent years, due to the fact that as a sport it has been 
fostered by military organizations, the Y. M. C. A., 
and other athletic associations, Boy Scout and Girl 
Scout troops, and by summer camps and waterside 
resorts generally. 

While it is undoubtedly true that swimming can 
be much more easily taught to children than to 
adults, it is nevertheless possible to teach anyone of 
any age who possesses enough confidence to trust 
himself to the water. The human body when left 
to itself cannot submerge completely. It will sink 
gently until the mouth and upper part of the face 

367 


Sports, and Games 

are exposed, but will go no further if the submerged 
person does not struggle. The first efforts on his 
part, if untrained, will splash water into his mouth 
or nostrils and cause strangulation. When resting on 
one’s back in the water with the chest inflated, the 
body will not sink further than the chin, and it has 
a sustaining weight of six or eight pounds. 

The first task of the beginner, therefore, is to learn 
to trust the water—to stretch himself out upon it 
easily, and to use his arms and legs only as a means 
of locomotion and not for the purpose of keeping 
afloat. Of course, these limb strokes will further aid 
in keeping the body above water, but that is the 
secondary purpose and not the primary. 

The pupil should commence with the leg move¬ 
ment by taking hold of the steps or bar of the tank, 
supposing it be a tank in which the pupil begins 
his lessons, with one hand level with the surface, and 
place the other hand against the side or steps, some 
18 inches below the surface. In this manner he 
readily controls his body. Stretch out the body hori¬ 
zontally to its fullest extent near the surface of the 
water, and keep the legs closed, toes turned outward, 
back hollowed and the head turned back. 

BREAST STROKE 

The easiest stroke to learn and therefore the one 
used by the majority of swimmers is the breast stroke. 
While many speedy swimmers disdain to use it, it 

368 


Swimming 

lends itself to natural and easy locomotion through 
the water. It has been used in conjunction with other 
strokes by many long-distance swimmers. 

When learning the breast stroke, the first thing to 
keep in mind is the necessity of conserving one’s 
strength. Do not fight the water and do not take the 
strokes too hastily. First the arms should be accus¬ 
tomed to the swimming movement, and then the legs. 
It is the co-ordination of arm and leg movement 
which makes the careful swimmer. The first stroke 
for the arms begins with the elbows nearly at the side. 
The forearms and hands are brought up in front 
of the chest with the palms facing outward away 
from the body. The fingers are held straight out and 
closed together so as to form a sort of paddle. From 
this chest position, push the arms straight out in 
front of the body to the full extent with the palms 
turned slightly outward. Then sweep the forearm 
entirely around until it is at right angle with the 
shoulders. Then the elbows are dropped again to 
the side and the hands brought up in front of the 
chest ready for the next stroke. While the arms are 
being straightened out with the full movement, the 
legs are drawn up at the knee, and the moment the 
arms are brought down to the side, the legs strike out 
in a kick or a movement of their own. 

The leg movement is really in three parts as 
follows: 

1. Turn the toes outward to the right and left 

369 


Sports and Games 

respectively with the heels nearly touching; draw up 
the feet gently toward the body somewhat above the 
level of the back, and as they near the body separate 
the feet a few inches. When drawn up, the soles of 
the feet should be at right angles to the surface of 
the water and just below the surface, while the knees 
should be turned outward to the right and left, and 
not drawn up too much under the body. 

2. To develop the next movement, the legs must 
be smartly kicked in the outward direction to their 
widest extent without straining the thighs. 

3. As soon as the legs have been straightened, con¬ 
tinue the stroke without interruption by closing them 
with vigor until they nearly touch each other in line 
with the body—here is where the toes are turned 
downward, slashing the water with the soles of the 
feet—preparatory to bringing them up into the first 
position. 

THE OVERHAND SIDE-STROKE 

Many racers prefer the overhand side-stroke to 
any other, as they claim it allows greater freedom of 
the body and consequently less strain. But it is a 
matter of choice as to which side of the body is 
turned. 

Swimming with the left side toward the surface 
does not impede the action of the heart, and the 
organs of digestion are kept free from pressure. For 
the purpose of clear description it will be best to 

370 



Swimming 

imagine the swimmer is in the water lying on the 
right side. At the starts the lower arm should be 
pulled downward toward the hips, in a plane per¬ 
pendicular to the surface, the fingers being kept close 
and the hand fiat, so as to present a large surface to 
the water. When this stroke is finished, the hand 
should be turned quickly, palm upward, so that to¬ 
gether with the lower part of the arm it cuts the 
water sidewise, the arm being almost bent double. 
Then, as it is shot forward, the hand is gradually 
turned from palm downward, until, when it arrives 
at its position in front of the head, and almost at the 
surface, it is ready for the next stroke. The recovery 
ought to be effected much more quickly than the 
“pull,” as in the former the water offers resistance 
only to the upper part of the arm; but during the 
down-stroke the whole arm and hand have to be 
dragged through it. • , 

The upper or left-arm stroke is started when the 
downward stroke of the under or right arm is fin¬ 
ished. It begins about half a foot in front of the 
face. The arm is slightly pointing downward. The 
pull in most cases is taken with the arm bent a little 
as it enters the water, but in others the hand is 
brought under the chest, and then, with the arm bent 
at right angles, swept back close to the body, the arm 
gradually straightening as it leaves the water. This 
stroke should not be made too long, either at the 
beginning or at the finish, as the effect of the power 

37i 


Sports and Games 

applied is greater when the hand is opposite the 
shoulder. At the end of the pull, that is, when the 
hand is opposite the waist, it should be brought 
smartly out of the water, and carried quickly for¬ 
ward through the air to recommence its work. In 
the recovery the fingers are kept near but not touch¬ 
ing the surface of the water. As the upper arm en¬ 
ters the water the legs should begin to open for the 
leg stroke. They should be in the position for begin¬ 
ning the kick when the hand is about six inches from 
the knee, and the kick should be completed and the 
legs straightened just as the right hand is pointing 
toward the bottom. With this movement, called the 
“alternate movement/ 1 the left hand appears to slap 
the left knee just as the kick is started, but in reality 
never comes closer than three inches. 

The leg movement is described as follows: From 
the straightened position, the legs are drawn up close 
to each other and near the body; they are opened and 
brought together again simultaneously, the left or 
upper leg being kicked out forward as in running, 
the knee straightened, and the power applied with 
the back of the calf and sole of the foot. The right 
or lower leg is bent almost double, until the heel 
nearly touches the thigh, the tendon Achilles acting 
as a cut-water, and the foot swinging as on a hinge, so 
that there is really very little resistance. The sweep 
is then made simultaneously with the upper leg, the 
power in this case coming from the entire front of the 

372 


Swimming 

leg from the toe to the knee. In the effective part of 
the stroke the left foot is straightened with a stamp 
at the same time that the right leg meets it with a 
vicious kick. As the legs come together, the wash 
from the upper meets the swirl from the lower, and 
helps considerably to send the body forward. 

In trying to perfect himself in this stroke, the be¬ 
ginner will find that the position of the head requires 
great attention. He must be able to breathe cor¬ 
rectly and at the proper time. About 45 strokes are 
taken to the minute for a hundred-yard swim, and 
at each stroke a breath is taken as the upper arm is 
in the recovery. The exhalation must be going on 
all the remaining time, the waste air being forced 
out the nostrils. 

THE “TRUDGEON” AND DOUBLE OVER-ARM STROKE 

Many forms of this stroke are adopted by sprint 
swimmers and water polo players. It is a very 
fatiguing method of progression, and rarely used for 
distances over one hundred yards; but for short races 
it is preferred by many to the overhand stroke just 
described. 

Why some long-distance swimmers seem partial 
to the Trudgeon stroke is not clearly understood, as 
the overhand side-stroke is much better adapted to 
longer races. The Trudgeon was first popularized 
abroad by its sponsor, J. Trudgeon, who acquired 
his knowledge in the rivers of South America, and 

373 


Sports and Games 

later won an English championship race of 100 
yards. Many of the swimmers who copied Trudg- 
eon afterward found that a double over-arm stroke 
was less laborious and equally as fast, as instead of 
the chest being raised clear out of the water, they 
were able to keep the body more horizontal and thus 
use the power which would otherwise be required 
to raise the chest from water for propulsion. The 
leg kick is the same as in the ordinary overhand 
stroke. When the kick is taken, the body is on its 
side, and as the recovery of the legs is being made, 
one arm is making a positive stroke while the other 
is being brought into position out of the water and 
the body turns on the breast. Meanwhile, the upper 
hand has gone forward; as it is being pulled through 
the water and the leg-kick taken, it turns on to the 
side again. 

The double over-arm stroke which is frequently 
called the Trudgeon is not strictly the original 
Trudgeon stroke. Trudgeon himself varied the 
stroke of the double over-arm with a peculiar type 
of leg motion which is not now in use by swimmers. 
The modern method is to use the double over-arm 
with a scissors kick, as it has been found much faster 
for racing. 

In describing the variants on the original Trudg¬ 
eon stroke, Mr. J. H. Sterrett, the swimming expert, 
says: “While it would not be literally correct to 
call the modern Trudgeon stroke a ‘double over-arm- 

374 


Swimming 

side stroke/ yet that is most nearly what the motions 
of the double over-arm approach, for you must first 
swim one part of the stroke as a side-stroke move¬ 
ment, and then roll over partly on the breast to get 
your other arm out of the water, thus giving you 
more positive action and greater speed by getting 
both arms out, than you would get from the single 
over-arm, in which one of the arms must be pushed 
under and through the water, with the resistance such 
negative action entails.” 

The real secret of successful distance swimming 
in using the Trudgeon stroke is in acquiring the art 
of breathing rapidly. As the face is almost con¬ 
stantly submerged, the beginner will find it ex¬ 
tremely hard to time his breathing and his arm 
strokes. For a short dash through the water, the 
breath might possibly be held for several strokes, but 
in the long run this is exhausting. The best method 
is to turn the face slightly on the completion of each 
stroke for a quick intake of air and then exhale 
slowly through the nose while the face is still under 
water. 


THE CRAWL STROKE 

The crawl stroke, like the Trudgeon, was intro¬ 
duced into America from abroad and immediately 
sprang into wide favor. It originated in Australia, 
the two Cavil brothers being among its first expo¬ 
nents. It is particularly adapted to speed racing and 

375 


Sports and Games 

has been the means of winning the majority of the 
championship races in the last twenty years. 

This stroke is quite different from others. In order 
to use it successfully, the arms and legs are kept as 
close to the body as possible so as to offer a minimum 
of resistance to the water. The upper parts of the 
legs are kept fairly close together and there is no 
kicking motion such as is used for foregoing strokes. 
The swimmer lies as lightly on the water as possible 
face downward, and the legs from the knee down 
are alternately raised and dropped with a paddling 
motion. This amounts to a thrust backward and 
tends to propel the body straight ahead through the 
water. The arm motion is somewhat similar to that 
used in the Trudgeon stroke. As the right foot 
strikes backward, the left arm which is bent at the 
elbows is thrust into the water straight ahead and 
drawn sharply backward for its full length, emerg¬ 
ing again from the water at the hips. Meanwhile, 
the other leg and the other arm are taking up the 
motion. The result is that some one member is 
always in the act of propelling the swimmer through 
the water, and the motion is more continuous than 
in other types of swimming. 

The peculiarity about this mode of swimming is 
that the work is almost entirely done with the arms; 
one of the Cavils, in fact, demonstrated that he could 
win a race with his feet tied together and he did 
actually do so in a contest with amateurs. Many 

376 


Swimming 

crawl swimmers use the feet more as a means of 
steadying the body and keeping their course trimmed, 
than for any great distance which they expect to 
make by the use of their feet. 

As in the Trudgeon stroke, the matter of breathing 
is important. It is much harder to breathe properly 
with the crawl than with other strokes, because the 
face is continually under water, and in order to get 
the best value out of the strokes, the swimmer must 
not turn his body unduly out of line. Since the head 
and shoulders must be turned slightly in order to 
get a proper breath, some crawl swimmers prefer 
to breathe only after every two or three strokes. 
Experts in the art of swimming, however, breathe 
after every stroke by a quick half turn of the head 
just as the arm is thrust forward. The breath is then 
slowly exhaled under water. 

SWIMMING ON THE BACK 

The great importance of back swimming has been 
little recognized by swimmers. Very great attention 
is paid to the faster methods of progression, cham¬ 
pionships and ordinary races for every conceivable 
distance having been promoted; back swimming, 
however, the knowledge of which is of primary im¬ 
portance in saving life, has been neglected. Fast 
side-stroke swimming is of small value in saving life 
unless other methods of progression are known to the 
swimmer, and it often happens that the speed swim- 

377 


Sports and Games 

mer, who knows nothing else, has had either to re¬ 
lease his hold of a drowning person or else to call 
for help himself. 

Back swimming can be easily acquired by any 
person able to swim on the breast, for the movements 
are almost identical. 

The best method of learning back swimming is to 
stand in water which reaches up to the waist, then 
spread the arms out on a level with the shoulder, fall 
gently backward on to the water, and as the legs 
leave the bottom, take a slight spring so as to impart 
impetus to the body. In the first stroke the arms 
should be brought round almost to the side, the hands 
being kept in such a position that the thumbs are 
nearest the surface, and at the same time the leg- 
stroke should be carried out in exactly the same man¬ 
ner as in breast-stroke swimming. In bringing the 
arms back to first position, the hands should be turned 
palm downward, so as to offer less resistance. The 
more perfect form of method is to make a sculling 
motion with the arms, the hands being brought 
toward the sides of the body during the effective por¬ 
tion of the leg-kick, and pushed outward when the 
legs are getting ready for the next kick. The tip 
of each hand describes a sort of double loop. 

FLOATING ON THE BACK 

In order to learn to swim easily on the back, one 
must of course learn to rest confidently upon the 

378 


Swimming 

water and at ease. The swimmer who can float will 
easily pick up the back swimming strokes. To a 
swimmer who really loves the art as a pastime, there 
is nothing so enjoyable as being able to float in open 
sea water. When the breakers are running high the 
body is at one moment poised on the top of a wave, 
while the eyes rapidly scan the valley of water 
beneath and the incoming wave beyond; the next 
moment the body is sunk in the valley with a high 
mountain on either side, and the blue sky above. 

The essential in floating is plenty of self-confi¬ 
dence. If a man be possessed of this, it will not take 
him very long to master the art. It is the nervous 
and impatient who experience so much difficulty. 
Non-success, even after continued practice, should 
not be allowed to act as a deterrent, but all the pre¬ 
cept in Christendom is often unavailable with the 
swimmer “who could float if his legs would not 
sink.” 

When beginning the attempt to learn, the mouth 
should be kept closed, as, when the body comes to a 
horizontal position on the surface, the water will in 
all probability ripple over the face before the arms 
are placed accurately beyond the head, and, if the 
mouth be open, the swimmer forgets all about the 
need for balancing himself, gasps at the inrush of 
water, lets his legs sink, and then has to begin again. 
One of the best methods is to stand on the bottom of 
the tank, stretch the arms out perpendicularly over 

379 


Sports and Games 

V. 

the head, and gradually incline the body backward 
until the shoulders are under water, all this time 
keeping the legs rigid and the body and arms as far as 
possible in the same straight line with the legs. The 
lungs should then be well filled, and a straight push 
off from the bottom taken. Every movement must 
be made slowly and carefully; there must be no 
jerking, or failure will inevitably result. As the 
legs rise to the surface they should be extended, and, 
with the arms kept perfectly rigid. The palms of 
the hands should face upward; the arms themselves 
should be widened apart if necessary, so as to cover 
a greater surface of the water, the head should be 
kept well back. If the body sink for a moment, the 
limbs should be kept rigid, and the breath held. The 
mouth and nose, toes and chest, will then rise above 
the surface, and the swimmer will realize that he is 
floating. The body will sink slightly at each expira¬ 
tion, but will rise again at each inspiration. 

DIVING 

Many swimmers enjoy diving more than swim¬ 
ming, and some beautiful forms of diving have been 
perfected. Diving contests are now a feature at 
every water carnival. The best method of learning 
to dive is to stand on a platform or bank, then stoop 
down until the body is nearly double, stretch out 
the arms in front of the head, sink the head between 
them, and gradually tumble over into the water. 

380 



DIVING 

Three types of fancy high diving, at a summer camp at Peterboro, 








Swimming 

The great difficulty is to make the first plunge. Once 
this is accomplished, proficiency will soon come with 
practice. Most beginners are nervous, and afraid 
to enter head first. Their trials are often amusing. 
They will start for a dive, but change it into a jump; 
or they will keep their head back and arms up, thus 
coming down on the water in grand style, with plenty 
of noise and splash. 

A very good plan with a beginner who is learning 
to dive is to get two other swimmers to hold a towel 
stretched in front of him. This gives him an idea 
as to the throwing up of the legs, and as he goes 
over if the legs are not thrown up, the confederates 
should raise the towel so as to force the learner to 
make a clean dive. At his next attempt, he will 
probably get his legs up properly. 

In high diving, which should not be attempted 
until the learner has thoroughly mastered low diving, * 
the take-off is made either from a spring-board or 
solid platform. The latter is the safer and more 
graceful, one of its finest examples being the “swan 
dive.” The diver leaps straight out into midair and 
the body is then straightened out horizontal with the 
water. The feet are kept close together, and the 
arms (in the swan dive) thrown up and back. Then 
the head is declined toward the water, and the hands 
brought down together below it in the form of a 
wedge. The body should enter the water cleanly and 
without a splash. 


38i 


Sports and Games 

A spring diving-board is generally used for run¬ 
ning headers by experienced bathers, but should on 
no account be attempted by beginners. A run of 
from twenty to thirty feet is made; when the end of 
the diving-board is neared, a jump is taken, and the 
body shoots up into the air. Then the experience 
gained in low diving is brought into service, the 
body is straightened and declined toward the water. 
When properly done, this style of diving is very 
graceful. It creates no splash, and the body enters 
the water “cleanly.” Other fancy dives, such as the 
“jack-knife,” are made from a standing start off the 
spring-board. 

The diver for distance, or plunger, should stand 
erect on his starting base with the toes slightly over¬ 
lapping the edge of the tank and the ball of the foot 
resting firmly upon the diving base. The knees 
* should be kept together. Then the arms should be 
swung slowly backward and forward and a few short 
respirations taken, the heels being raised from the 
ground at each forward swing of the arms. The 
inhalation should be short and the exhalation long. 
As soon as the lungs are well cleared, a spring for¬ 
ward is made, and a deep inspiration is taken. As 
the feet leave the diving base the hands are thrown 
above the head in line with the body, which in the 
spring forward should be directed so as to enter the 
water as far as possible from the starting point. The 
actual angle to be observed can only be arrived at by 

382 


Swimming 

continual practice, but at no time should the body be 
more than two or three feet below the surface of the 
water. When the body has once entered the water, 
the palms of the hands should be flat, the fingers kept 
perfectly straight, and thumbs locked. The feet 
should be turned well back, with the soles as nearly 
as possible facing upward. At the same time the 
body must be kept rigid in as straight a line as pos¬ 
sible, and perfectly motionless. If these directions 
be observed, the body will move from twenty to 
thirty feet under the water, then gradually rise to 
the surface, and float onward in a straight line; the 
plunge terminating when the swimmer finds the air 
in the lungs exhausted, and is thereby compelled to 
raise his face. When the body is rising to the sur¬ 
face after the dive, care should be taken that the 
head and arms do not come too far out but remain 
on the surface; otherwise the impetus gained by the 
dive will be greatly lessened, and the distance of the 
plunge curtailed. 

In order to “hang on,” or otherwise expend to the 
greatest advantage the progressive power which has 
been gained from the dive, it is essentially important 
that the management of the breath should be made 
the subject of careful study, as it is the principal 
difficulty with which the plunger has to contend. 
There is, of course, a great strain on the respiratory 
organs when a long plunge is being taken, and it will 
therefore be evident that immediately before the 

383 


Sports and Games 

dive the lungs should be fully inflated with pure air, 
so as to allow the plunger to enter the water under 

conditions which will enable him to make the long¬ 
est stay, with his mouth and nostrils below the sur¬ 
face, without undue strain. 

In order to effect a good plunge, many of those 
who take part in competitions “hang on” an inordi¬ 
nate time, until the respiratory center becomes af¬ 
fected, and the head painful. We have known two 
or three instances of plungers sinking, face down¬ 
ward, in a state of insensibility; but such cases are 
rare, as the face being close to the surface can be 
quickly raised when the feeling of strain becomes 
noticeable. It will, however, be recognized that in 
deep water the danger is one that should not be over¬ 
looked, and when such competitions are in progress 
both the plungers and officials should be on the alert 
for possible accidents. 


384 


TENNIS 


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TENNIS 


npENNIS—or ta give it the proper technical 
name, Lawn Tennis—is a sport with royal an¬ 
tecedents. There has been an attempt to trace it 
back to antiquity and find a reference to some such 
game in Homer’s Odyssey. The sixth book describes 
a Grecian princess as playing at a game of ball with 
her maids of honor. While the Greeks and Romans 
did have such handball games, it would be difficult 
to connect them with tennis. 

The French were among the first of the modern 
nations to take up this sport. Several terms still in 
use are derived from the French. It is thought by 
some that the name of the game itself is derived from 
the French word tenez, meaning ‘‘seize it” or “play.” 

After the fourteenth century, we find frequent 
references to a game something resembling tennis 
and played in the court circles of both France and 
England. Chaucer is thought to have alluded to this 
game in his reference to “playen racket to and fro.” 

Among the French monarchs, Louis XI, Charles 
V and Charles VI all were devoted to this game 
which they termed ha Boude. In still later years 
in France during the reigns of the various Louis, 
there are frequent references to the sport. From the 

387 


Sports and Games 

sixteenth century on, it was widely played both in 
France and England. Shakespeare makes a direct 
allusion to tennis in his play Henry V, Act I, Scene 
2, in a passage beginning “When we have match’d 
our rackets to these balls.” 

The tennis there alluded to, however, was indoor, 
or what we now call Court Tennis. It was played 
either within doors or within enclosed garden walls. 
There were usually long galleries erected along the 
side walls for the benefit of the spectators. 

Lawn tennis as such can hardly be traced further 
back than 1870. While in earlier times the game 
was probably played by the indoor devotees of the 
sport on any outdoor court that might be available, 
it had still been regarded as an indoor game. In 
1874, however, a Major Wingfield of England took 
out a patent for a game of outdoor or lawn tennis 
which speedily became popular. The court as de¬ 
vised by him was of a pattern termed “The Hour 
Glass.” A few years later this type of court gave 
way to the familiar rectangle as we now have it. 

From 1880 on, this outdoor game grew in popu¬ 
larity by leaps and bounds both abroad and in 
America. Two of the first clubs in this country were 
the Boston Athletic Club and the New York Racquet 
and Tennis Club. 

Tennis has, however, been regarded as a game for 
a few rather than for the masses. The fact that only 
a few players c-an participate at a time—either two, 

388 


Tennis 


three, or four—and that it does not lend itself well as 
an amphitheatre spectacle has restricted its popu¬ 
larity. It has not been until recent years, that tennis 
has assumed prime importance among outdoor sports, 
partly due to the fact that our American champions 
have been victorious in international contests for sev¬ 
eral years in- succession and won the titles of cham¬ 
pions of the world. With the rise of such players as 
Malcom D. Whitman, William A. Larned, Hol¬ 
combe Ward, Beals C. Wright, William J. Clothier, 
Maurice E. McLaughlin, R. Norris Williams, II, 
William M. Johnston, Vincent Richards, William 
T. Tilden, II—to say nothing of other players of 
high order—America has presented an impregnable 
front to the rest of the world. 

The Davis Cup Contests are participated in by a 
dozen different countries and are played abroad as 
well as at home. In 1900, 1901, and 1902 succes¬ 
sively the United States won this coveted prize. Then 
for a period of ten years it went to other hands. In 
1913, an American won again, losing the next year to 
Australia, which for several years has had consis¬ 
tently strong teams. During the years of the war, 
there were no competitions. In 1919, playing was 
resumed with Australia as winner. In 1920, Amer¬ 
ica won again, repeating her victories in 1921 and 
1922. 

Tennis for women has attracted almost as much 
attention as that for men, and again our country has 

3^9 


Sports and Games 

produced extremely strong players, such as Mrs. 
May Sutton Bundy, Miss Mary K. Browne and Miss 
Helen Wills of California, and Mrs. Molla Mallory 
of New York. The contest between the latter and 
Mile. Lenglen of France in 1923, won by the French 
player, attracted world-wide attention. England 
also has produced some brilliant women players. 
“Mixed doubles” by the foremost men and women 
players are a feature at ail international contests. 

HOW A COURT JS LAID OUT 

A tennis court may be either a dirt surface, i.e., 
scalped of turf, or a grass surface. Tournament 
games are played on the latter, but the majority of 
players prefer the dirt court as they think it a faster 
game. Furthermore, this type of court is more easily 
kept up. 

In choosing a site for the court, have it run if 
possible from north to south. Facing a court east 
and west results in one or the other player, on clear 
days, having to face the sun, which is a serious handi¬ 
cap. It is also best, if possible, to lay out a doubles 
court, on which four players can take part, rather 
than a singles, which is limited to two players. The 
doubles court may include the extra bounds for sin¬ 
gle players, and thus be used for either type of game. 

The accompanying diagram illustrates the man¬ 
ner of laying out both courts, with dimensions of 
same. 


390 


Tennis 


The singles court is a rectangle 78 feet long and 
27 feet wide. It is divided across the middle by a net, 
the ends of which are attached to the tops of two 
posts, standing 3 feet outside the court on each side. 
The height of the net is 3 feet 6 inches at the posts. 
It should be pulled taut between the posts but re¬ 
tained at a height of 3 feet in the middle by a strap 
called the center strap, which should be not more 
than 2 inches wide. There is a band at the top of 
the net, from 2 to 2*4 inches in width. 

At each end of the court, parallel with the net, and 
39 feet from it, are drawn the base lines, the ends of 
which are connected by the side lines (see diagram). 
On each side of the net, at a distance of 21 feet from 
it, and parallel with it, are drawn the service lines. 
The middle points of the service lines are joined by 
the center service line which divides the space on 
each side of the net between the service line and the 
side lines into two service courts. The places where 
the center service line, if extended, would meet the 
base lines are indicated by 4-inch marks immediately 
inside the base lines, called center marks. All lines 
and marks should be not less than 1*4 inches or more 
than 2 inches in width, except the base lines, which 
may be 3 inches in width. As one faces the net from 
each base line, the right and left halves of the inter¬ 
vening court are the right and left courts, respec¬ 
tively. 

In the doubles game the court is the same length 

39i 


Sports and Games 

as in singles but is 36 feet wide. The service courts 
are the same as in singles. If necessary to avoid de¬ 
lay, the singles side lines may be allowed to remain 
marked in their entirety, instead of only where they 
coincide with the service side lines. 

IMPLEMENTS OF THE GAME 

The playing implements are light, resilient, hol¬ 
low balls which are struck or volleyed back and 
forth by means of rackets. The balls should measure 
not less than 2 9-16 inches, nor more than 2 10-16 
inches in diameter; and should weigh not less than 
2 1-16 ounces. The rackets, which are used to pro¬ 
pel or bat the balls back and forth across the net, 
are made of wood strung with lambs’ gut; or of 
metal with metal stringing; but Wood is preferred. 
They are of varying weights depending on the size 
or strength of the player. 

Mr. A. E. Beamish, the English expert, has this 
to say with regard to the racket: “When the novice 
chooses his racket, if he hasn’t an expert friend to 
help him in person, he must remember certain points 
and hints as well as he can, or he will be sure to get 
something quite unsuited to him. Generally speak¬ 
ing, he should be guided by the strength of his wrist 
and muscles, the size of his hand, and other physical 
details, which vary with everyone and consequently 
render any arbitrary rules for selection of the racket 
quite impossible. In the writer’s opinion there are 

392 


Tennis 


three points at least which every good racket must 
possess, besides those which are demanded by the 
individual characteristics of the selector: 

“1. The racket must be well strung, i.e., have an 
even tension of gut all over the playing surface. 

“2. It must be well balanced, i.e., when swung 
back and downwards, swing easily without drag at 
any point. This quality is very difficult to find, ex¬ 
cept by contrast. The writer knows* from the ‘feel’ 
of the racket that ‘comes up badly’ how the well- 
balanced article should behave. 

“3. The racket’s head should be long rather than 
round in shape, with a concave block in the shoulder. 
This last detail is most necessary, for the sound rea¬ 
son that thereby about one-quarter inch more length 
is obtained in the main strings, which will thus have 
a correspondingly increased power of drive. 

“In addition to these vital points, the character¬ 
istics of a good racket, which the beginner should 
learn to look out for and recognize in the selection 
of his racket, there are other points, more individual 
to his own peculiarities, which he will have to find 
out for himself. He must exercise his judgment as 
to the size and shape of the handle, point of balance, 
style of stringing and thickness of gut, as well as 
upon other small details not so important to the 
quality as to the appearance of the racket itself. 

“The beginner is advised to choose a racket of 
from 13*4 to 14*4 ounces in weight, never less and 

393 


Sports and Games 

never more, if for use by a man; and one from 13 to 
13j4 ounces, never more than this weight, if for use 
by a woman. The racket should be tightly strung 
(never play with a loosely strung racket at any cost), 
of medium gut, as having the best qualifications for 
wear, with a long head, and a concave block (for 
reason given above) at the shoulder. The size of the 
handle is so absolutely a matter of individual choice 
that no opinion can be given on the question; the 
beginner, however, should remember that the ills 
attendant upon the use of too big.a handle are greater 
than the penalties that wait upon the users of one too 
small. In the first instance, by giving the fingers 
too much to hold, the player will lose flexibility of 
wrist, and probably strain his muscles; in the second 
case, the racket will twist in the hand, more often 
than not, and the stroke be spoiled. In the first case 
downright damage will probably be done, in the 
latter merely some lost games. From this the begin¬ 
ner should know that his best course is to get a handle 
that exactly suits him, and avoid both evils.” 

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED 

The game may be played by two, three, or four 
persons. Where there are two on a side the doubles 
court is used, as previously described. In a three- 
handed game a single player plays in a single court, 
while the two others must cover a doubles court. 

394 


Tennis 

In a four-handed game both courts are, of course, 
double courts. 

The choice of sides and the right to serve in the 
first game shall be decided by toss; provided that, 
if the winner of the toss choose the right to serve, the 
other player shall have the choice of sides, and vice 
versa; or the winner of the toss may insist upon a 
choice by his opponent. If one player choose the 
court, the other may elect not to serve. 

The opposing players take positions on opposite 
sides of the net. The player who first delivers the 
ball is called the server, and the one to whom he 
serves, the receiver. The object of the game is to 
deliver or return the ball successfully within the 
bounds of the enemy’s court. 

At the end of the first game the receiver becomes 
the server, and the server the receiver; and so on 
alternately in subsequent games. 

The server takes a position with both feet behind 
the base line, and between the limits of the center 
line and the side line. He delivers the service from 
the right and left courts alternately, beginning from 
the right, and endeavors to hit the ball in such a way 
as to cause it to drop into the service court, diagon¬ 
ally opposite. 

It is a fault if the server fails to strike the ball, 
or if the ball served drop in the net, or beyond the 
service line, or out of the court, or in the wrong 
court. 


39S 


Sports and Games 

After a first fault, the server is privileged to serve 
again from the same court from which he served 
that fault, unless it was a fault because he served 
from the wrong court. 

The server must be sure that the receiver is ready. 
If the latter attempt to return the service, he shall 
be deemed ready. 

A service or fault delivered when the receiver is 
not ready, is called a “let,” and does not count. Also 
? served ball which strikes the net, even though other¬ 
wise good, is a “let” ball. 

The service must not be volleyed; that is, taken, 
before it has touched the ground. After the first re¬ 
turn, however, it may be either volleyed or returned 
from the first bound. A ball is in play on leaving 
the server’s racket, if no fault has been committed, 
and it remains in play till the stroke is decided in 
favor of one or the other players. It is a good return 
if the ball is driven back into the proper court, even 
though it may touch the net. 

For other rules and decisions governing the play, 
the reader is referred to the Official Rules. 

On either player winning his first stroke, the score 
is called 15 for that player. On either player win¬ 
ning his second stroke, the score is called 30 for that 
player. On either player winning his third stroke, 
the score is called 40 for that player. The fourth 
stroke won by either player is scored game for that 
player, except as follows: If each player has won 

396 


Tennis 


three strokes, the score is. called deuce; and the next 
stroke won by either player is scored advantage for 
that player. If the same player win the next stroke, 
he wins the game; but if he loses the next stroke, the 
score returns to deuce, and so on, until one player 
wins the two consecutive strokes immediately follow¬ 
ing the score of deuce, thus winning the game. 

The first player who wins six games wins the set, 
except as follows: If both players win five games 
the score is called “games all”; and the next game 
won by either player is scored advantage game for 
that player. If the same player win the next game, 
he wins the set; but if he loses it, the score returns to 
games all; and so on, until one or the other player 
wins two consecutive games immediately following 
the score of games all, when he wins the set. 

The players shall change sides at the end of the 
first, third, and every subsequent alternate game of 
each set. In many friendly games, however, the 
change occurs only at the end of the set. 

In all contests the play is continuous from the first 
service till the match is concluded; provided, how¬ 
ever, that at the end of the third set each player is 
entitled to a rest which shall not exceed 10 minutes; 
and, provided, further, that in case of an unavoidable 
accident, a cessation of play which shall not exceed 
two minutes, may be allowed between points; but 
this proviso shall be strictly construed, and the privi- 

397 


Sports and Games 

lege never granted for the purpose of allowing a 
player to recover his strength or wind. 

The above laws, which are simplified from the 
Official Rules, also apply to the three-handed and 
four-handed games, except as follows: 

In the three-handed game, the pair who have the 
right to serve in the first game shalT decide which 
partner shall do so; and the opposing pair shall de¬ 
cide in like manner for the second game. The part¬ 
ner of the player who served in the first game shall 
serve in the third, and the partner of the player who 
served in the second game shall serve in the fourth, 
and the same order shall be maintained in all sub¬ 
sequent games of the set. 

The players shall take the service alternately 
throughout the game; a player cannot receive a ser¬ 
vice delivered to his partner; and the order of service 
and receiving once established shall not be altered, 
nor shall the receiver change courts to receive the 
service, till the end of the set. 

THE PRINCIPAL STROKES 

“In the game of Lawn Tennis,” says Mr. Beamish, 
“there are practically only three primary strokes, 
upon which the others are founded. The rules and 
methods governing the production of these strokes 
are fundamental, and apply in a more or less modi¬ 
fied degree to them all. Thus the beginner should 
first of all understand the principles which affect the 

398 














Tennis 


production of these strokes; then he will be better 
able to appreciate their value, and the part they play, 
in the other more difficult shots he afterwards at¬ 
tempts. 

“Finally, he will obtain, in this way, a good 
grounding in the first principles of the general 
strokes of the game, which will help him very con¬ 
siderably in his more mature efforts later on. 

“Every stroke in the game of Lawn Tennis (as of 
Golf) can be divided into three separate and dis¬ 
tinct actions, which should be in practice, however, 
so harmoniously blended into one movement that no 
single one should appear more conspicuous than the 
other. 

“1. The first movement, or the preparatory part 
of the stroke, is the swing back of the racket. 

“2. The second movement, or the working part of 
the stroke, is the forward swing of the racket, to meet 
the ball, and the blow itself. 

“3. The third, or the finishing part of the stroke, 
is the end of the racket’s swing after it has met the 
ball; this controls the balance of the striker and 
regulates the power and strength of the shot. 

“Upon the first of these depends the accuracy of 
the second, and the correct production of the third. 
The third, again, has a considerable power of affect¬ 
ing the second, in proportion to the amount of atten¬ 
tion that is paid to it. 

“Thus all these movements are interdependent and 

399 


Sports and Games 

affect one another to a considerable extent. Upon 
the manner in which they work depends the success 
of the whole series of which the stroke as a whole is 
comprised. 

“Now, any golfer will tell you, and treat the thing 
as a truism, that the swing back of the club regulates 
the length of the shot. Very few tennis players have 
applied this to their own game, consciously at least, 
and are not aware that the racket's backward swing 
should be long or short as the stroke intended is to be 
deep or short. Neglect of this fairly obvious fact 
is one of the most frequent causes of mistiming, loss 

* 

of power, and ‘snatching’—that complaint of the 
beginner, whose eagerness to hit the ball hurries the 
backward swing into the actual stroke itself and ruins 
the timing of the shot. 

“Again, upon the unimpeded finish of the racket’s 
swing after the ball has been hit depends the power 
of the stroke and the balance of the player’s body, 
as well as the smooth production of the stroke with¬ 
out jerk or check. 

“And once more, as with the golf club, this free 
follow-through of the racket after the ball has been 
struck has a kind of retrospective value on the stroke 
itself. For as a general rule, when the follow- 
through is freely made the player’s balance is sus¬ 
tained, and the stroke then gets every single atom of 
value from the swing of the racket and the transfer- 

400 


Tennis 

ence of the player’s body weight from one foot to 
the other. 

“Play the shot with a checked follow-through and 
the tightening up of the muscles that will nearly 
always precede this fault—if it is not a reason for it 
—will cause the ball to be mistimed and the stroke 
spoiled. 

“Thus, if beginners would appreciate the fact that 
each of these three actions that comprise the stroke 
has its value in the whole movement, they would give 
more care to them severally and successively, and 
so be enabled to make each shot as perfectly as their 
skill and capacity to put them into practice will 
permit.” 

Service. The game is always begun with the 
service—so this will be the first stroke described. 
On picking up your racket, you will notice that your 
hand instinctively covers the flat part of the handle. 
This natural grip is all right for some forms of ser¬ 
vice, but not for all. If you wish to make a long, 
clean hit across the net—and this is the only kind of 
service to learn in the beginning—you should grasp 
the handle with the center of your palm a little to 
the right of the center of the narrow part of the 
handle itself. The fingers can then close round the 
narrow part of the handle with a firmer grasp. Any 
other kind of grip will result in a service with a cut 
ball. 

Take up your position with your feet and should- 

401 





Sports and Games 

ers in the same line and in such position that this line 
would cut directly across the court in which you in¬ 
tend to serve. The service runs diagonally from the 
right to the left or from the left to the right. If you 
are a right-handed player, grasp the racket in your 
right hand and the ball in the left and raise the two 
simultaneously, tossing the ball lightly into the air 
in such a way, if it were not struck by the racket, it 
would fall back and strike you on the left shoulder. 
At the same time throw your shoulders and head well 
back and bring the racket back with a slow easy 
sweep as far back as you can conveniently bring it. 
This, of course, comes only from practice. Mr. A. 
E. Crawley says: “The height at which the ball is 
hit is where the arm in hitting is straightening at the 
elbow. Service is a throw, and in throwing a cricket 
ball the ball leaves the hand just as the arm is 
straightening. Therefore, and in all strokes, the arm 
must be fairly well bent at the start. Then it goes 
up, bends down behind the head, comes up and then 
down on the ball, as your shoulders come round from 
their original diagonal position and your right leg 
swings with them. The ball should be thrown up a 
couple of feet higher than the point at which you hit 
it; you have more time to watch it, and it is easier 
to hit when descending. 

“Don’t throw the ball before your racket swings 
up. It is easier and more rhythmical to throw both 
up together. Here comes a difficulty, and to most 

402 


Tennis 


beginners this throwing of the ball to the right place 
with the left hand is very difficult. Practice throw¬ 
ing up and catching, without using the racket. Now, 
the special difficulty is that you are facing more or 
less the right-hand net-post, and your left hand is 
about just in front of your left hip, your racket in 
front of your right hip. Therefore, to throw the ball 
so that it would drop on your left shoulder, you must 
throw it in a curve from your front to your left 
shoulder. There is a further reason for this, namely, 
that the two arms must, throughout the stroke, keep 
the same distance apart, neither stretched backwards 
nor turned in like scissors.” 

In service, as in all full strokes, the golfing rule 
of “slow back” applies to tennis. The motion of the 
arm as it comes to the ball should be hastened, and 
still more so after hitting. This is the secret of the 
follow-through, so important also in the golf stroke. 
Any check on or after impact is fatal. Therefore, 
when you see the ball, aim carefully, watch it hard, 
and get on to it with increasing speed. 

Return Shots. Immediately the ball is in play, 
any number of other strokes will be needed by both 
players. The return play depends entirely upon the 
speed and location of the served ball. The kind of 
return shot to use must be decided instantly. Many 
players serve their first ball so fast that it is almost 
impossible to return it, at any rate with any degree 
of accuracy. But in the ordinary game, the first 

403 


Sports and Games 

stroke frequently lands in the net, and the player does 
not dare drive the second with the same speed for 
fear of committing a double fault. He will conse¬ 
quently deliver an easy ball which the opposite 
player should be able to return, and also to place at 
some advantage. 

The Smash . This is the name given for overhead 
balls which are sent back with considerable force 
into the opposite court. As in the service, the move¬ 
ment of the body itself is all important for accuracy. 
The same grip should be used as in the straight ser¬ 
vice. This stroke is difficult to learn but can be used 
with deadly accuracy when once acquired. For 
smashing, the player may make use of the same grip 
as that of the straight fast service. The full arm 
swing reminds one of the lusty blows of an axe. 
High balls are more easily handled with a smash 
stroke than lower ones; although many players have 
developed both forehand and backhand shots with 
great power. 

Forehand Strokes. The secret of a successful 
forehand drive is a short swing back and a long 
follow-through. This with practice results in such 
accuracy that the hand and the racket seem to be 
guiding the ball back to its exact position in the 
opposite court. Do not bend the arm or turn the 
wrist, as the least deflection will spoil the aim. Do 
not swing the racket further back than the shoulder, 
and an even shorter swing is better. The stiff wrist 

404 


Tennis 


which is so essential is maintained by tightening the 
grip of the fingers. Do not grasp the handle at right 
angles or straight across, but slope your fingers for¬ 
ward, along it. This insures better leverage and con¬ 
sequently better control. 

The Volley. In every game of tennis there is the 
constant temptation to volley the ball—that is, return 
it before it has struck the ground. This is more diffi¬ 
cult than it looks, and results in many wild smashes 
out of bounds. One has less time to judge of the 
ball’s flight or trajectory. Furthermore, excessive 
volleying quickly tires out all the players. Many of 
the best players only volley certainties. Mr. Craw- 
leys says of this stroke: 

“The best grip is that for a chopper. Holding 
comfortably, with the head of the racket well up, 
you can slide your hand a fraction round, before 
hitting, to the right for a forehand volley, to the left 
for a backhand. Sometimes it is unnecessary even 
to do this. Further, when waiting, hold the racket 
straight out in front of you like a rapier. If you 
hold it across your chest, you may be too late for a 
forehander; if you hold it down by your right side, 
you will be too late for a backhander. The inter¬ 
mediate position is the best. Again, if you hold the 
racket well up, you can easily protect your face from 
being hit, a not uncommon accident which has fre¬ 
quently caused the loss of an eye. 

“Most of the quick-firing volley-plays in doubles, 

405 


Sports and Games 

is not hitting the ball, but just meeting it, and the 
angle at which the racket meets it decides its direc¬ 
tion. Other volleys are hit with a bent arm, half¬ 
arm shots these. For low volleys you must, of course, 
stoop. It is possible to volley a ball, which is only 
two inches from the floor, by grounding the racket 
behind it, with (as in all low volleys) its head laid 
back. Such a ball may be cut if it is almost out of 
reach. Again, you may drive the ball as if you were 
playing a full drive from the floor. In this volley 
only need the wrist be stiff; though in all volleys 
which are more than taps, the wrist is stiffened as 
you follow through. The lob-volley is easy, and very 
useful when the opponent is coming forward rather 
rashly. Make it quickly at the last moment and only 
just high enough to be out of his reach. If too high, 
he will have time to run back and return it. Lastly, 
there is the drop-volley. When the opponent is well 
back and you are close to the net, it is a certain win¬ 
ner. Meet the ball slowly and gently, drawing the 
racket down and under it, thus putting on back-spin 
and letting the ball, so to say, roll off the racket. The 
drop-shot off the ground is executed in the same way, 
but is best made with the racket well up so as to 
come down and under the ball. To alternate long 
drives with short drops is a useful principle of 
tactics.” 

Backhand Stroke. Many a good tennis player in 
the making has failed to achieve distinction because 

406 


Tennis 


of his or her inability to master the backhand stroke. 
It is the most difficult of all, because the most com¬ 
plex and unnatural; and as soon as an experienced 
player on the opposite side discovers this weakness 
in an opponent, he is merciless. While m^ny play¬ 
ers can return a ball by the backhand stroke after a 
fashion, comparatively few of them can place it with 
accuracy; consequently,, if it falls within bounds it 
can be easily returned. 

The beginner can master this stroke, however, if 
he takes it up naturally and without being “afraid 
of it.” Grasp the racket as you would a small hand- 
mirror and hold it up in front of you in order to 
look straight through the strings. Then let it drop 
slowly to your side until the racket stops in a hori¬ 
zontal position. You will note that the handle is 
extending diagonally through the palm, with the 
fingers clutched lightly but firmly around it. Now 
separate the forefinger slightly from the rest and 
crook it. You will find that the control of the handle 
lies between this arched forefinger and the thumb, 
while the other fingers merely act as supports. 

Now practice meeting gently driven balls with the 
backhand sweep, held in this manner, and note how 
the slightest change of angle or undue pressure on 
any part of the racket affects the direction of the 
ball. The perfection of this fine and necessary stroke 
only comes through practice, and any player can ac¬ 
quire it if he is only patient and not afraid. 

407 


Sports and Games 

Ground Strokes. One of the most important of 
strokes is the half-volley. This can be practiced and 
mastered by oneself. Drop a ball and hit it the 
moment it reaches the floor. Aim not at the ball, but 
at its point of contact with the floor. Strike with an 
upward swing which will tend to raise the ball and 
get it over the net. The easiest half-volley is when 
the ball is close beside your foot. The hardest, when 
it comes directly at your foot. 

“If you expect a forehand stroke,” says Crawley, 
“you can wait for the ball with this grip on your 
racket, and the racket held in front. If you expect 
a backhand, you can wait with the backhand grip, 
racket again in front. But it is wiser to wait with 
the intermediate grip—that for an axe—and shift it 
as you go to meet the ball. 

“Before the ball reaches the ground, you must, 
of course, be more or less in a position suitable for 
returning it. Step into the sideways moving stance 
with your last-but-one step before hitting. Mean¬ 
while, what about your racket? As with the other 
implements for hitting a ball, you should take aim. 
When you hammer a nail, you first aim, by putting 
the hammer on the nail; then you swing back and 
smite. So, before the ball reaches the ground, your 
racket should be pointed forward, to the place 
which, as you will have judged, is appropriate for 
the impact. Then, ‘come back with the ball,’ and 
then forward to it, accelerating as you get on to it 

408 



Tennis 


and your arm srraightens. At the end of the follow- 
through the head of the racket should be as high as 
your shoulder and pointing to the place where you 
sent the ball. These two things mean that you have 
hit upwards and in a line with the proposed direction 
of the ball. It is only in cut- and spin-strokes that 
the racket moves across the direction or obliquely 
to it.” 

DEFINITIONS OF PLAYING TERMS 

Net. The netting placed across the middle of the 
court. 

Post. One of the wooden or metal uprights sup¬ 
porting the net. 

Band. The strip of canvas attached to the top of 
the net. 

Base Line. The back line at either end of the 
court. 

Side Line. The line at either side of the court that 
marks the outside edge of the playing surface. 

Service Line. The line 21 feet from the net that 
bounds the back of the service courts. 

Centre Service Line. The line dividing the ser¬ 
vice court into halves and separating the right and 
left service courts. 

Center Mark. The mark bisecting the base line, 
defining one of the limits of the service position. 

Side Service Line. The line forming the boun¬ 
dary of the service courts at the right and left side 
lines. 

409 


Sports and Games 


To Serve. To put the ball into play. 

Service, or Serve. The act of putting the ball into 
play. 

Server. The player who serves. 

Receiver. The player who receives the service. 

Toss. To spin or throw up the racket for choice 
of service or court. 

Fault. A served ball that does not strike in the 
proper court, or is not properly served. 

Foot Fault. Position or movements of the feet 
before or during the service in violation of Rule 6. 

Volley. A stroke made by hitting a ball before it 
has touched the ground, except*in serving. 

Racket. The implement used to strike the ball. 

Let. A served ball that touches the net and yet 
goes into the proper court. Also any stroke that does 
not count and is played over. 

Stroke . The act of striking the ball with the 
racket. 

Permanent Fixtures. The umpire, linesmen and 
spectators, and their chairs or stands, net, posts, back- 
and side-stops, and many other objects situated 
around a court. 

In Play. A ball is “in play” from the instant it 
leaves the server’s hand until the point has been 
decided. 

Point. The smallest unit of the score. Four 
points scored win a game, unless both sides have won 

410 


Tennis 


three points, when the score is “deuce” and one side 
must gain a lead of two points to win the game. 

Game. The unit of scoring next higher than the 
point, scored when either side has won four points, 
unless the other side has meantime won three; in 
that case the side first gaining a lead of two points 
wins. 

Set. The unit of scoring next higher than the 
game, scored when either side has won six games, 
unless the other side has meantime won five; in that 
case the side first gaining a lead of two games wins. 

Umpire. The official in charge of the match, 
whose duties are defined in the Regulations. 

Referee. The official in charge of a tournament, 
whose duties are defined in the Regulations. 

Linesman. An official of a match, whose duties 
are defined in the Regulations. 

Tournament. An official competition. 

Tournament Committee. The committee in 
charge of a tournament 

Challenge Cup. A trophy placed in competition 
under stated conditions, which must be won more 
than once. 

LAWN TENNIS ETIQUETTE 

In addition to the rules of the game which every 
player is presumed to know, there are unwritten laws 
covering the game which it would 6e well for the 
player to keep in mind. The following recommen-' 

411 


Sports and Games 

dations, compiled by a member of the National 
Rules Committee, are worth remembering: 

Return all stray balls that come in your direction 
as promptly as possible. You appreciate this favor 
in return. 

“Thank you,” is an appeal, not an acknowledg¬ 
ment. Comply by returning the stray ball quickly 
and good-naturedly. 

When returning the balls between strokes to the 
server, look first to see where he is standing, and 
return the ball as near to that part of the court as 
possible. Roll them along the ground and under the 
net if you can. 

If you touch the net while the ball is in play or 
commit any other infraction of the rules that loses 
the point for you, instantly announce the fact of your 
doing so. 

Do not leave it to your opponent to keep the point 
or game score. It is your job as much as his, and it 
makes the game run smoother and faster. 

Do not call a ball that you have hit “in” or “out.” 
That is for your opponent to do. 

Do not serve until your opponent seems to be 
ready; a glance at him will tell whether he is or not. 
It is not fair to hurry your service. 

When a service is a fault, let it go by you and do 
not hit it, as it is very apt to annoy the server as he 
is delivering the second ball. 

Your opponent will call the balls on his side of 

412 


Tennis 


the court, and, no matter what you think, play on his 
call; the breaks will even up during a match. There 
are very few players who will knowingly call them 
wrong. 

The spectators are bound by laws of etiquette no 
less rigid. They should remember that tennis is 
played strictly as an amateur sport for its own sake 
and not for profit. To seek to influence a play by 
expressions of approval or disapproval is bad form. 
Restrict yourself to applause for good shots made by 
either side and after the play is over. 

Do not applaud errors; by that is meant that your 
approval should be given to good strokes only. Do 
not applaud a shot that goes out of court or into the 
net, even if it gives a point to the player you want 
to win. 

Do not coach the players. Never call ‘‘Good, 1 ' 
“Out,” “Let it go,” “Hit it,” etc., because thereby 
you are influencing a player’s judgment, which is a 
factor in the outcome of the match. Coaching inter¬ 
feres with the fair playing of a match and may be¬ 
come extremely disconcerting by causing doubt as 
to whether some particular call came from a spec¬ 
tator or was an offlcial’s decision. 

If you do not agree with the decisions as they are 
given, withhold your disapproval; remember that 
the linesmen and umpires are in a better position to 
judge the play than you are. 

Do not throw a stray ball into the court while play 

4i3 


Sports and Games 


is on; wait until a stroke is finished and then roll 
it in. 

Refrain from talking loudly while a match is on, 
as a player may hear you and take it as a call from 
a linesman, and thus not play a good ball. 

Under no circumstances walk or stand so near a 
court that you obstruct a contestant; his is inex¬ 
cusable. 


414 




















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